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THE  SOCIAL  FACTORS  AFFECTING 

SPECIAL  SUPERVISION  IN  THE 

PUBLIC  SCHOOLS  OF  THE 

UNITED  STATES 


BY 
WALTER  ALBERT  JESSUP,  Ph.D. 

PROFESSOR  OF  EDUCATION,    INDIANA  UNIVERSITY 

SOMETIME  FELLOW   IN  EDUCATION, 

TEACHERS  COLLEGE,   COLUMBIA   UNIVERSITY 


TEACHERS  COLLEGE,  COLUMBIA  UNIVERSITY 
CONTRIBUTIONS  TO  EDUCATION,  NO.  43 


PUBLISHED  BY 

2I*arI?frB  QloUrgf,  (Cnlumbia  IninfrHitg 

NEW  YORK  CITY 

1911 


Copyright  1911,  by  Walter  Albert  Jessup 


3  Hi 


PREFACE 

This  study  was  undertaken  in  connection  with  a  course  in 
;^!ducational  Sociology  under  Professor  Henry  Suzzallo,  and  to 
him  I  owe  my  greatest  debt  of  gratitude  for  continuous  encour- 
agement and  helpful  criticism. 

Grateful  acknowledgment  is  also  due  to  Professors  Thomdike, 
Strayer  and  Monroe  for  assistance  rendered,  and  to  the  hun- 
dreds of  school  superintendents  and  supervisors  throughout  the 
United  States,  who  responded  so  promptly  to  the  requests  for 
data. 

I  am  also  deeply  indebted  to  my  friend,  Dr.  Lotus  Delta  Coff- 
man,  for  many  helpful  suggestions  and  much  sympathetic  coun- 
sel, and  to  my  wife  for  constant  inspiration  and  untiring  effort 
in  tabulating  data  and  revising  the  manuscript. 

WALTER  ALBERT  JESSUP 
Bloomington,  Indiana 
April,  191 1 


CONTENTS 
Chapter  PAGE 

I.    INTRODUCTION    i 

Statement  of  problem. — Method. 

II.    MUSIC   4 

Attitude  of  Early  Puritans. — Attempts  at  improvement. — 
Agitation  for  singing  school. — Development  of  choir. — 
Reaction  against  choir. — Growth  in  popular  interest  in 
music. — Music  as  a  Common  School  subject. — Boston 
Academy  of  Music. — Results. — Sanction. — Actual  intro- 
duction in  Boston. — Influence  of  the  Academy  of  Music. 
—Lack  of  permanent  success. — Agitation  elsewhere. — Re- 
ligious pressure. — Attitude  within  the  school. — Statement 
of  a  leader  in  Public  School  music. — Intellectual  value 
dominant. —  Formal  discipline. —  Administrative  means 
used. — Summary. 

III.  DRAWING    i8 

Early  indifference. — Scattering  attempts  at  drawing  in- 
struction.— Insufficient  pressure  to  insure  persistent  atten- 
tion.— Economic  value  of  drawing. — English  influence. — 
Meagre  results. — Divergent  points  of  view. — Effects  of 
Paris  Exhibit  of  1867. — Result  of  petition. — Transfer 
of  EngHsh  leader. — Industrial  nature  of  drawing. — At- 
tempts elsewhere. — Impetus  given  by  Centennial  Exposi- 
tion.— Varying  conceptions. — Reception  within  the  school. 
—Neglect  on  part  of  regular  teachers. — Difficulty  in  stick- 
ing to  industrial  purpose. — Intellectual  value  uppermost. — 
Mental  discipline  in  drawing. — Plan  in  administration. — 
Summary. 

IV.  MANUAL  TRAINING  32 

Social  and  economic  changes. — Relation  of  manual  train- 
ing to  drawing. — Centennial  Exposition. — Beginnings  of 
Technical  Education. — Secondary  manual  training  schools 
supported  by  economic  forces. — Humanitarian  activities. — 
Practical  nature  of  instruction  in  charity  schools. — 
Kitchen  Garden  movement — Industrial  Education  As- 
sociation.— Pressure  for  manual  training  in  New  York 
City. — Introduction  in  New  York  schools. — Training 
schools  for  teachers. — Spread  of  influence. — Private  in- 
struction in  Boston. — Boston  school  committee  assumes 
responsibility. — Forces  outside  of  school  back  of  manual 
training  movement. — Opposition  of  teachers. — Relation  of 
kindergarten  movement  to  manual  training  movement. — 
Attitude  of  FeHx  Adler. — Attitude  of  Nicholas  Murray 
Butler. — Estimate  by  Commissioner  Dawson. — Manual 
training  interpreted  in  the  light  of  intellectual  tradition 

of  school. — Attitude  of  Charles  W.  Eliot  and  others. — 
Refraction  of  outside  pressure  within  the  school. — Ad- 
ministration.— Summary. 


vi  Contents 

PAGE 

V.    DOMESTIC  SCIENCE  51 

Decline  of  Home  Industries. — New  opportunities  for 
women  outside  the  home. — Early  attempt  to  meet  the 
situation. — Early  sanction. — Relation  of  sewing  to  in- 
dustrial art  drawing. — Private  support  in  Boston. — Rela- 
tion of  sewing  to  manual  training. — Spread  of  influence. 
— Private  initiative  in  cooking  schools  of  Boston. — 
— Private  initiative  in  cooking  schools  of  Philadelphia. — 
Modification  after  fusion  with  manual  training  move- 
ment.— Attitude  of  the  school  toward  domestic  science. — 
Intellectual  value  emphasized. — Sewing  and  cooking  less 
refracted  by  school  room  traditions  than  manual  training, 
— Administration. — Summary. 

VI.    PHYSICAL  EDUCATION  64 

Early  attitude. — Exercise  through  work. — Jefferson's  mili- 
tary ideal. — Military  academies. — German  gymnastics. — 
Fellenberg  movement. — Physiology  and  hygiene. — De- 
mand for  school  exercise. — Dio  Lewis  as  a  leader. — 
Spread  of  the  Lewis  system. — Decline  of  interest. — Rise 
of  German  influence. — Results  of  the  activity  of  Turners. 
— Cincinnati  as  a  type. — Other  organizations  contributed. 
— Private  initiative  in  Boston. — Union  of  forces  produced 
wave  of  enthusiasm. — Reception  within  the  school. — 
Physical  exercise  in  place  of  the  recess  period. — Physical 
exercise  as  a  training  of  the  will.^ — Refraction  of  demand 
within   the   school. — Administration. — Summary. 

VIL    PENMANSHIP    78 

Early  religious  sanction  for  reading  and  writing  schools. 
— Writing  less  important  than  reading. — Traditional 
means  of  instruction  in  writing. — Commercial  sanction. — 
Double-headed  system  of  instruction. — Pressure  brought 
to  bear  on  regular  teachers. — Decline  of  writing  schools. 
— Attitude  of  school. — Administration. — Summary. 

Vm.    DISTRIBUTION  OF  SPECIALISTS 86 

Spread  of  the  practice  of  employing  supervisors. — Method 
of  distribution. — Sources  of  information. — Limitations.^ — 
Table  i.  Distribution  of  specialists  for  music,  drawing, 
penmanship  in  1875. — Table  2,  same  for  1885. — Table  3, 
same  for  1908. — Table  4,  Distribution  of  specialists  of 
manual  training,  domestic  science  and  sewing,  1893. — 
Table  5,  same  for  1908. — Table  6,  Distribution  of 
specialists  in  physical  education,  1893. — Table  7,  same  for 
1908. — Table  8.  Summary. 

IX.     SALARIES    97 

Sources   of   information. — Method   of   tabulation. — Table 

9,  Distribution  of  salaries  of  specialists  of  music. — Table 

10,  same  for  drawing. — Table  11,  same  for  penmanship. — 
Table  12,  same  for  manual  training. — Table  13,  same  for 
domestic  science  and  sewing. — Table  14,  same  for  physi- 
cal education. — Table  15,  Summary. 

X.     SEX  SELECTION   106 

Source  of  information  and  method  of  treatment. — Table 
16,  (a)  Distribution  of  men  and  women  by  subjects  and 
location. —  (b)  Percentage  of  women  specialists  distrib- 
uted  by  subjects  and   location. 


Contents  vii 

PAGE 

XI.    DIVISION  OF  RESPONSIBILITY io8 

Source  of  information. — Table  17,  (i)  Showing  difference 
in  division  of  responsibility. —  (2)  Combining  irrespec- 
tive of  size  of  city. —  (3)  Percentage  of  cities  following 
plan    C — Discussion. — Summary. 

XII.     SUMMARY  AND  CONCLUSION 112 

Sanctions. — Origin  of  demand. — Typical  ways  in  which 
new  subject  matter  became  part  of  the  curriculum. — 
Refraction  within  schoolrooms. — Spread  of  the  prac- 
tice.— Salaries. — Sex. — Division    of    Responsibility. 

Appendix 

L     INFORMATION   CARD    118 

II.     TABULATION   SHEET    iiQ 

III.    BIBLIOGRAPHY    120 


THE  SOCIAL  FACTORS  AFFECTING 
SPECIAL  SUPERVISION 


CHAPTER  I 
INTRODUCTION 

The  increase  in  the  number  of  subjects  for  instruction  in  the 
public  school  curriculum  within  recent  years  has  been  marked. 
Many  of  these  subjects  have  been  introduced  into  the  schools 
by  means  of  special  teachers  or  supervisors.  The  administra- 
tive adjustment  to  this  situation  has  been  accompanied  by  no 
little  difficulty.  Special  teachers  and  supervisors  have  multiplied 
until  it  is  no  uncommon  thing  to  find  a  single  city  employing 
such  specialists  in  a  half  dozen  subjects,  including  music,  draw- 
ing, physical  education,  manual  training,  domestic  science  and 
penmanship. 

This  involves  not  only  an  enormous  expenditure  of  money 
but  other  complications  arise  in  the  matter  of  the  adjustment 
of  the  time  schedules  for  inspection  and  instruction  and  in  the 
division  of  responsibility  for  instruction  in  these  various  sub- 
jects. Indeed  the  whole  problem  of  the  administration  of  these 
so-called  special  subjects  is  by  no  means  the  least  difficult  of 
the  tasks  which  fall  to  the  lot  of  the  school  superintendent. 

Statement  of  Problem 

It  is  with  appreciation  of  the  importance  of  the  problem  that 
the  present  study  has  been  undertaken.  This  study  does  not 
include  all  or  any  considerable  number  of  the  phases  of  the  sub- 
ject; rather  it  is  an  attempt  to  clear  the  ground  and  to  provide 
data  for  a  continued  investigation  which  might  safely  lead  to 
constructive  conclusions  relative  to  administrative  policy.  It 
has  seemed  wise  to  confine  the  investigation  within  the  follow- 
ing limits:  (a)  to  find  sanctions  back  of  the  demand  for  the 
introduction  of  these  subjects  most  commonly  thought  of  in  con- 


2  Social  Factors  Affecting  Special  Supervision 

nection  with  special  teaching  or  supervision,  namely,  music, 
drawing,  manual  training,  domestic  science,  physical  education, 
sewing  and  penmanship;  (b)  to  ascertain  if  possible  whether 
the  demand  for  these  subjects  came  from  within  the  school  itself 
or  whether  it  came  from  the  school  group  outside;  (c)  to 
point  out  certain  typical  ways  in  which  the  new  subject  matter 
became  a  part  of  the  curriculum;  (d)  to  determine  the  effect 
of  the  traditions  of  the  school  on  the  interpretation  of  the  new 
subject  matter;  (e)  to  determine  certain  quantitative  aspects 
of  the  problem  including  the  distribution  of  specialists,  for  sub- 
ject, location,  salary,  sex  and  method. 

Method 

With  these  problems  thus  stated  it  can  be  seen  that  this  study 
can  not  be  confined  to  the  single  field  of  statistical  inquiry; 
rather  there  is  needed  enough  of  history  to  furnish  a  genetic 
view  and  enough  of  the  quantitative  treatment  to  indicate  the 
present  situation  and  tendency,  plus  such  critical  interpretation 
as  the  facts  seem  to  warrant.  Owing  to  the  social  nature  of 
these  problems  the  expressed  opinions  of  the  leaders  in  the 
various  movements  have  peculiar  value  in  throwing  light  on  the 
forces  that  were  operative  in  bringing  about  the  introduction 
of  these  subjects.  For  as  Commissioner  Brown  says,  "  The 
man  who  inaugurates  a  new  movement  in  human  history  is  one 
who  gives  expression  to  what  many  have  been  thinking  more 
or  less  clearly."^ 

As  a  consequence  of  this  demand  for  knowledge  of  the  opinion 
of  leaders,  it  has  been  necessary  to  direct  especial  attention  to 
the  words  of  these  leaders  in  connection  with  the  various  or- 
ganizations of  school  people,  as  the  American  Institute  of  In- 
struction and  the  National  Education  Association.  Likewise 
the  reports  of  the  leaders  to  their  local  boards  and  to  the  United 
States  Commissioner  of  Education,  have  been  significant  in 
revealing  attitudes  toward  the  subjects  under  discussion. 

Commissioner  Brown  has  called  attention  to  the  universal 
prominence  of  Massachusetts  in  the  matter  of  educational  lead- 
ership thus,  "  whenever  an  illustration  of  some  good  educational 
movement  is  needed,  Massachusetts  appears  with  a  conspicuous 

'  Making  of  Our  Middle  Schools,  9. 


Introduction  3 

example.     At  almost  every  call  her  hand  goes  up  among  the 
first."^ 

The  rapidity  with  which  the  North  Atlantic  and  the  North 
Central  States  have  adopted  the  custom  of  employing  special 
teachers  and  supervisors  indicates  their  leadership  in  this  par- 
ticular,^ and  is  a  justification  for  the  apparent  predominance  of 
attention  to  certain  centers  of  influence  within  this  group. 

'Ibid.,  viii. 

» See  Tables  I  to  VIII. 


CHAPTER  II 

MUSIC 

Attitude  of  Early  Puritans  toward  Music 

Although  music  is  an  "  old  "  subject  in  the  history  of  educa- 
tion, its  introduction  into  the  public  school  curriculum  came 
relatively  late.  When  the  reading  and  writing  schools  and  the 
grammar  schools  were  being  established  in  the  colonial  period, 
music  was  the  subject  of  a  bitter  controversy.  This  was  most 
apparent  in  the  New  England  section  where  religious  feeling 
was  such  a  strong  factor  in  shaping  the  institutions.  The  con- 
tinuous and  far  reaching  influence  of  this  section  on  the  edu- 
cational affairs  of  the  country  warrants  a  clear  study  of  this 
situation. 

When  the  Puritans  revolted  they  included  music  in  its  exist- 
ing forms  in  the  list  of  things  to  be  rejected:  "They  destroyed 
organs,  music  books,  dissolved  church  choirs  and  chased  musi- 
cians from  the  church  gallery."^ 

Attempts   at  Improvement 

It  was  with  difficulty  that  the  clergy  was  able  to  convince 
our  New  England  forefathers  that  singing  in  any  form  was 
other  than  sinful.  Even  granting  that  there  might  be  a  Scrip- 
tural sanction  for  psalm  singing  there  remained  other  questions 
for  grave  dispute;  for  example,  the  wisdom  of  allowing  Chris- 
tians only  to  sing,  the  assembly  joining  in  the  silence  and 
responding  Amen.  Meanwhile  the  skill  in  singing  steadily  de- 
clined until  sensitive  ears  were  shocked  beyond  endurance.  Rev. 
Thomas  Symmes  of  Bradford.  Massachusetts,  wrote  in  1720, 
"  It  is  with  great  difficulty  that  this  part  of  the  worship  is  per- 
formed, and  with  great  indecency  in  some  congregations  for 
want  of  skill ;  it  is  to  be  feared  singing  must  be  wholly  omitted 
in  some  places   for  want  of  skill,   if  this  art  is  not   revived. 

'  Quoted  from  Ritter,  Music  in  America,  4. 

4 


Music 


5 


The  rules  of  singing  not  being  taught  or  learnt,  everj-one  sang 
as  best  pleased  himself,  and  every  leading  singer  would  take 
the  liberty  to  raise  any  note  of  the  tune  or  lower  it  as  best 
pleased  his  ear;  and  add  such  turns  and  flourishes  as  were 
grateful  to  him ;  and  this  was  done  so  gradually  that  few,  if 
any,  took  notice  of  it."^ 

In  the  latter  part  of  the  seventeenth  and  the  beginning  of  the 
eighteenth  century  the  knowledge  of  tunes  was  so  limited  that 
it  was  an  exception  to  find  a  congregation  able  to  sing  more 
than  three  or  four  tunes.  The  leading  clergymen,  includ- 
ing Mather,  Edwards,  Dwight,  Symmes,  Wise,  Eliot,  Walter, 
and  Stoddard  were  aggressive  in  their  effort  to  bring  about  an 
improvement.  However,  this  was  strongly  opposed  by  the  con- 
gregation. In  1723,  a  number  of  these  ministers  united  in  the 
preparation  of  a  tract  called  "  Cases  of  Conscience  about  sing- 
ing Psalms  briefly  considered  and  resolved."  In  this  they  set 
forth  a  number  of  questions  that  had  been  disturbing  the  peace 
of  the  communities.  The  following  is  suggestive  of  their  treat- 
ment :  "  Is  it  possible  for  Fathers  forty  years  old  and  upwards 
to  learn  to  sing  by  rule?  And  ought  they  attempt  at  that  age 
to  learn  ?  .  .  .  Whether  they  who  purposely  sing  a  tune  dif- 
ferent from  that  which  is  appointed  by  the  pastor,  or  elder  to 
be  sung,  are  not  guilty  of  acting  disorderly,  and  taking  God's 
name  in  vain  also,  by  disturbing  the  order  of  the  sanctuary,"^ 

Agitation  for  Singing  School 

The  following  quotation  from  the  tract  of  Rev.  Thomas 
Symmes  written  the  same  year  throws  additional  light  on  the 
situation :  "  I  have  used  my  best  endeavours,  according  to  the 
measure  God  has  given  me,  to  prevent  the  rise  and  afterwards 
the  progress  of  such  an  unhappy  controversy  in  this  place,  yet 
there  has  been  a  great  deal  of  contention  and  uneasiness  amongst 
us,  about  the  Singing  by  rule  and  I  perceive  there  are  some  yet 
dissatisfied.  Now  it  being  my  purpose  to  encourage  singing 
meetings  in  the  town  in  the  long  Winter  evenings, — and  thot 
it  prudence  to  make  another  essay  introductory  to  my  setting 

'  Hood,  History  of  Music  in  New  England,  88. 

'Quoted  from  Hood,  History  of  Music  in  New  England,  87.  See  also 
Elson,  National  Music  in  America,  49. 


6  Social  Factors  Affecting  Special  Supervision 

forward  such  a  laudable  practice  that  it  might  then  be  possible 
to  ease  the  minds  of  all  amongst  us  that  remain  dissatisfied  on 
this  score.  .  .  .  As  to  getting  money  by  it — why  the  singing- 
master  is  not  worthy  of  his  reward  for  his  pains  in  teaching 
our  children  to  sing,  as  well  as  the  school  dame  or  schoolmaster, 
for  teaching  our  children  to  read,  write  and  cypher,  I  cannot 
devise.  For  musick  is  as  real  and  as  lawful  and  ingenious  an 
art  as  either  of  the  other.  I  don't  say  as  useful  and  neces- 
sary."* 

Reference  has  already  been  made  to  the  attempt  to  start  sing- 
ing schools  in  order  that  the  desired  knowledge  and  skill  might 
be  attained.  Concerning  this  Rev.  Symmes  in  a  letter  written 
1723  said:  "Would  it  not  greatly  tend  to  promote  singing  of 
psalms  if  singing  schools  were  promoted?  Would  we  not  thus  be 
conforming  to  scripture  pattern?  Have  we  not  as  much  need  for 
these  as  God's  people  of  old?  Have  we  any  reason  to  expect 
to  be  inspired  with  the  gift  of  singing,  any  more  than  that  of 
reading?  .  .  .  Where  would  be  the  difficulty  or  what  the 
disadvantages  if  people  who  want  skill  in  singing,  would  pro- 
cure skillful  persons  to  instruct  them,  and  meet  two  or  three 
evenings  in  the  week  from  five  or  six  o'clock  to  eight  and  spend 
the  time  learning  to  sing.  Would  it  not  be  proper  for  school 
masters  in  country  parishes  to  teach  their  scholars?  Are  they 
not  very  unwise  who  plead  against  learning  to  sing  by  rule, 
when  they  can't  learn  to  sing  at  all  unless  they  learn  by  rule? 
Has  not  the  grand  enemy  of  Souls  a  hand  in  this  who  prejudices 
them  against  the  best  means  of  singing?"^ 

The  opposition  gave  way  in  the  presence  of  such  persistent 
onslaughts  of  the  clergy.  With  the  spread  of  the  new  practice 
in  singing  by  rule  the  singing-school  became  a  necessity.  Con- 
cerning this  Mr.  John  Curriven  says :  "  The  controversy  which 
ended  in  the  introduction  of  new  tunes  developed  the  necessity 
of  the  singing  school.  On  the  ruins  of  the  old  Psalmody  the 
singing  school  took  its  rise  and  from  this  time  New  England 
Psalmody  began  to  advance.  Singing  schools  which  began  about 
1720  became  quite  common  from  Maine  to  Georgia  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  seventeenth  century."® 

*  Quoted  from  Ritter,  Music  in  America,  15. 

''Ibid.,  28. 

'Quoted  from  Worship  Music,   117. 


Music  7 

Development  of  Choir 

With  this  increase  in  technique  and  necessity  for  highly 
speciaHzed  knowledge  music  gradually  became  the  special  re- 
sponsibility of  those  persons  who  were  familiar  with  the  new 
ways.  Those  who  had  attended  the  singing  school  together 
tended  to  sit  together  in  the  church  service  and  thus  the  choir 
developed.  From  the  "  History  of  Rowley  "  we  read — 1752 — 
"  the  parish  voted  that  those  who  had  learned  the  art  of  singing 
may  have  liberty  to  sit  in  the  front  gallery.'"^ 

Further  evidence  of  this  is  shown  in  the  following  paragraph 
from  the  "  History  of  Worcester  " :  "  The  final  blow  was  struck 
to  the  old  system  by  the  resolution  of  the  town,  August  5,  1779, 
'  Voted  that  the  singers  sit  in  the  front  seats  of  the  front  gal- 
lery and  that  those  gentlemen  who  have  hitherto  sat  in  the  front 
seats  of  said  gallery  have  a  right  to  sit  in  the  front  and  second 
seat  below,  and  that  said  singers  have  said  seats  appointed  to 
said  use.  Voted,  that  said  singers  be  requested  to  take  said 
seats ;  and  carry  on  the  singing  in  the  public  worship,'  "^ 

Reaction  against  Choir 

With  the  division  of  responsibility  and  the  rise  of  specialists 
came  a  clash  in  standards  of  musical  excellence.  The  artistic 
taste  of  the  choristers  developed  on  lines  more  or  less  out  of 
harmony  with  the  spirit  of  worship. 

With  the  increased  technique  came  increased  vanity.  "  Flashy 
anthems,  boisterous  fuguing  choruses,  and  long  spun  out  solos  " 
became  the  fashion  among  the  choirs.  "  The  church  singer, 
whom  the  musical  clergyman  had  preached  into  existence,  began 
to  feel  his  great  importance  as  an  integrant  part  of  the  church 
service ;  and  scarcely  had  he  conquered  his  envied  place,  when 
the  clergyman  found  himself  obliged  to  preach  him  down 
again."» 

Grozvth  in  Popular  Interest  in  Music 

By  the  opening  of  the  nineteenth  century  popular  interest 
developed   in   music   as   an   art  to   such   an   extent  that  music 

'  Quoted  from  Ritter.  Music  in  America,  48. 
'Ibid.,  48. 
'Ibid.,  49. 


8  Social  Factors  Affecting  Special  Supervision 

societies  sprang  up  quite  generally.  The  most  notable  of  these 
were  the  Stoughton  Musical  Society,  established  in  1786,  the 
Boston  Handel  and  Haydn  Society,  organized  in  181 5,  and  the 
New  York  Choral  Society  in  1823.^° 

Music  as  a  Common  School  Subject 

With  this  increase  of  interest  in  singing  and  the  growing 
importance  of  the  Public  Schools,  it  is  not  surprising  to  find 
that  definite  efforts  were  being  made  to  include  singing  instruc- 
tion as  a  part  of  the  work  of  the  schools.  In  1830  Wm.  C. 
Woodbridge  delivered  a  lecture  on  Vocal  Music  as  a  branch 
of  Common  Education  before  the  American  Institute  of  Instruc- 
tion, which  attracted  much  attention.  Woodbridge,  who  had 
recently  returned  from  a  trip  abroad,  was  much  impressed  with 
the  singing  in  Germany  and  Switzerland.  "  It  was  with  no  small 
degree  of  surprise  and  delight  that  we  found  it  (music)  in 
Germany  and  in  Switzerland  the  property  of  the  people,  cheer- 
ing their  hours  of  labor,  elevating  their  hearts  above  the  objects 
of  sense,  which  are  so  prone  to  absorb  them,  and  filling  the 
periods  of  rest  and  amusement  with  social  and  moral  song  in 
place  of  noise,  riot  and  gambling.  But  we  were  touched  to  the 
hearts  when  we  heard  its  cheering,  animating  strains  echoing 
from  the  walls  of  a  school  room."" 

Lowell  Mason,  an  enthusiastic  leader  in  musical  affairs  at 
the  time,  also  had  a  vision  of  the  value  to  be  attained  through 
the  widespread  diffusion  of  instruction  in  singing.  He  was 
especially  interested  in  church  music;  indeed  he  has  been  called 
by  some  the  "  Father  of  Church  Music  in  America."  He  adopted 
the  methods  of  Pestalozzi  through  the  influence  of  Woodbridge 
and  was  most  influential  in  arousing  interest  in  the  problem 
of  popular  musical  instruction. 

Boston  Academy  of  Music 

In  1833  t'lc  Boston  Academy  of  Music  was  organized  with 
Lowell  Mason  at  the  head.  The  purpose  of  this  organization 
can  be  seen  from  the  following  statement  of  their  plans :  "  First, 

"  See  Elson,  National  Music  in  America,  275. 

"Report  of  Proceedings  of  American  Institute  of  Instruction,  1830. 


Music  9 

To  establish  schools  of  music  for  juvenile  classes;  Second, 
To  establish  singing  schools  for  adult  classes;  Third,  To  form 
a  class  of  instruction  in  the  methods  of  teaching  music  which 
may  be  composed  of  teachers,  parents,  and  all  other  persons 
desirous  to  qualify  themselves  for  teaching  vocal  music ;  Fourth, 
To  form  an  association  of  choristers  for  purposes  of  improve- 
ment in  conducting  and  performing  social  music  in  the  church; 
Fifth,  To  establish  a  course  of  scientific  lectures  for  teachers, 
choristers,  and  others;  Sixth,  To  establish  a  course  of  popular 
lectures  on  the  nature  and  object  of  church  music  and  style 
of  composition  and  execution  appropriate  to  it,  with  experi- 
mental illustrations  by  the  performances  of  a  select  choir;  Sev- 
enth, To  establish  exhibitions  and  concerts  of,  (i),  juvenile 
classes,  (2),  select  performers,  (3),  large  numbers  collected 
annually  or  semi-annually ;  Eighth,  To  introduce  vocal  music 
into  the  Public  Schools,  by  the  aid  of  such  teachers  as  the 
Academy  may  be  able  to  employ,  each  of  whom  shall  instruct 
classes,  alternately  in  a  number  of  schools ;  Ninth,  To  publish 
circulars  and  essays  for  the  purpose  of  the  Academy."^- 

Res  lilts 

An  analysis  of  the  plans  of  the  organization  reveals  the  secret 
of  its  wonderful  influence.  The  appeal  is  made  in  the  name 
of  the  religious  sanction ;  instruction  is  to  cut  through  the  v|ari- 
ous  social  levels  and  reach  teachers,  children,  parents  and  chor- 
isters. Publicity  is  to  be  gained  not  only  through  the  usual 
channels,  but  by  means  of  attractive  exhibitions.  With  such  a 
well  organized  plan  it  is  not  surprising  to  find  that  the  move- 
ment was  successful.  From  the  first  the  organization  met  with 
support.  The  second  annual  report  showed  that  over  twenty- 
two  hundred  pupils  had  been  enrolled.  Sporadic  attempts  were 
made  from  time  to  time  to  get  the  school  committee  to  undertake 
the  burden  of  music  instruction.  Little  came  of  it,  however, 
until  1836,  when  the  Academy  of  Music  succeeded  in  getting 
the  Select  School  Committee  of  Boston  to  adopt  a  memorial 
in  favor  of  Music. 


"Quoted  from  the  American  History  and  Encyclopedia  of  Music,  vol- 
ume on  American  Music,  19-20. 


10  Social  Factors  Affecting  Special  Supervision 

Sanctions 

In  this  report  the  arguments  for  and  against  music  were  set 
forth  somewhat  fully.  The  arguments  for  it  were  based  on  its 
value  as  an  aid  to  reading,  its  value  as  a  means  of  relaxation 
and  its  significance  as  an  aid  to  the  spirit  of  devotion.  Its  rela- 
tion to  other  accomplishments  was  recognized  thus :  "  It  is 
objected  that  if  one  accomplishment  is  introduced  into  our 
schools,  why  not  another?  If  instruction  is  given  in  vocal  music, 
why  should  it  not  be  given  in  dancing  also  ?  The  answer  simply 
is,  because  music  is  not  dancing;  because  music  has  an  intel- 
lectual character,  which  dancing  has  not;  and  above  all  because 
music  has  its  moral  purpose,  which  dancing  has  not."^^ 

The  following  resolution,  dated  August  24,  1837,  marks  the 
next  step  taken  by  the  Board :  "  This  Committee,  August  24, 
1837,  submitted  the  following  resolution  to  the  Board : 

Resolved :    That  the  experiment  be  tried  in  four  schools. 

Resolved:  That  the  experiment  be  given  in  charge  of  the  Boston 
Academy  of  Music,  under  the  direction  of  the  Board. 

Resolved :  That  the  experiment  be  commenced  as  soon  as  possible 
after  the  passing  of  this  resolution  and  be  controlled  and 
extended  as  the  Board  may  hereafter  determine. 

Resolved :  That  these  resolutions  be  transmitted  to  the  city  council, 
and  that  they  be  respectfully  requested  to  make  such 
appropriation  as  may  be  necessary  to  carry  this  plan  into 
effect."  " 

Actual  Introduction  in  Boston 

The  city  council,  however,  refused  to  appropriate  the  neces- 
sary funds  for  making  the  experiment.  Whereupon  Lowell 
Mason  introduced  this  instruction  in  one  school  on  his  own 
initiative,  and  at  his  own  expense.  This  was  well  received  and 
with  such  success  that  the  opposition  was  broken  down.  The 
year  following  Mr.  Mason  was  regularly  employed  as  Superin- 
tendent of  Music  for  the  Boston  Schools.  He  rapidly  systema- 
tized the  work  and  during  his  administration  the  work  was  suc- 
cessfully carried  on.  He  was  aggressive  in  the  matter  of  giving 
special  training  to  the  teachers  in  the  subject. 

"It  is  interesting  to  note  this  in  the  light  of  the  present  agitation  in 
favor  of  the  introduction  of  dancing  in  the  Public  Schools. 
^*Ibid.,  251. 


Music  1 1 

Influence  of  the  Academy  of  Music 

The  Boston  Academy  of  Music  affords  an  excellent  example 
of  the  possibilities  to  be  attained  through  skillful  organization, 
wise  leadership  and  persistent  effort,  in  the  matter  of  registra- 
tion of  a  social  demand  on  the  curriculum  of  the  schools.  Con- 
cerning their  responsibility  in  this  matter  the  following  con- 
temporaneous estimate  is  significant :  "  To  the  exertion  of  the 
Academy  of  Music  undoubtedly  we  are  chiefly  indebted  for  the 
introduction  of  music  in  the  public  schools.  They  have  taken 
upon  themselves  the  heavy  responsibility  of  a  most  important 
experiment,  the  success  of  which  must  exert  the  strongest  influ- 
ence on  the  future  destiny  of  the  art  amongst  us."^^ 

Frank  Damrosch  recently  said :  "  The  most  important  service 
rendered  by  the  Boston  Academy  of  Music  was  its  effort  to 
influence  public  school  authorities  to  introduce  systematic  in- 
struction of  singing  in  the  public  schools."^** 

It  is  not  to  be  inferred  that  Boston  was  alone  in  this  matter 
— rather  that  the  foregoing  statement  is  somewhat  typical  of  the 
steps  taken  in  the  introduction  of  the  subject  and  the  succeeding 
struggles.  Nevertheless,  Mr.  Lowell  Mason's  influence,  in  con- 
nection with  the  Academy  of  Music,  served  as  a  powerful  ex- 
ample for  imitation.  As  to  the  effect  of  this  work  elsewhere, 
the  third  annual  report  of  the  Academy,  issued  in  1835,  says : 
"  Letters  have  been  received  from  persons  in  Georgia,  South 
Carolina,  Virginia,  Illinois,  Missouri,  Tennessee,  Ohio,  Mary- 
land, New  York,  Connecticut,  Vermont,  New  Hampshire,  and 
Maine  asking  for  information  relative  to  measures  which  they 
ought  to  adopt  in  order  to  introduce  music  as  a  branch  of  edu- 
cation in  the  common  schools  where  they  live."^^ 

The  fact  that  this  report  was  made  before  the  final  intro- 
duction of  the  subject  into  the  Boston  Schools  indicates  the 
publicity  which  accompanied  their  efforts. 

Lack  of  Permanent  Success 

However,  the  success  of  public  school  music  was  by  no  means 
continuous,   even   in   Boston,  despite  the   fact  that   it   received 

"Editorial  Statement,  Musical  Magazine,  July  6,  1839. 

^'^  American  History  and  Encyclopedia  of  Music,  Music  in  America,  21. 

"3rd  Ann.   Kept.,  "1835. 


12  Social  Factors  Affecting  Special  Supervision 

recognition  at  the  hands  of  the  Board.  There  was  sufficient 
pressure  in  favor  of  music  instruction  to  warrant  its  continued 
presence  in  the  schools  as  a  subject  of  study,  but  this  was  not 
strong  enough  to  demand  adequate  provision  for  instruction. 
Concerning  this  Superintendent  Philbrick  said :  "All  along  there 
was  more  or  less  opposition  to  it  on  the  part  of  those  members 
of  the  Board  who  took  narrow  views  of  the  scope  and  aims 
of  education ;  the  provision  made  for  teaching  it  was  inadequate, 
and  the  standard  of  attainments  arrived  at  was  what  we  should 
regard  as  very  low.  .  .  .  One  music  master  was  annually 
appointed  '  to  provide  teachers  of  singing,  and  superintend  the 
same,'  for  which  service  he  was  allowed  a  certain  compensation 
for  each  school  taught.  .  .  .  After  this  had  been  in  practice 
about  eight  years,  it  was  superseded  by  a  '  double-headed  sys- 
tem,' the  schools  being  divided  between  two  music  masters,  who 
were  allowed  to  employ  their  respective  assistants.  This  was 
undoubtedly  a  step  backward,  and  in  two  or  three  years  was 
followed  by  a  still  greater  stride  in  the  same  direction.  .  .  . 
The  sub-committee  of  each  school  was  authorized  to  nominate  a 
teacher  of  music  for  the  school  under  the  charge  of  the  same. 
This  sporadic  arrangement  was  not  a  success. "^^ 

Renewed  interest  was  taken  in  the  subject  from  1856  on,  and 
in  1864  the  office  of  supervisor  and  teacher  of  music  in  the 
Primary  Schools  was  created. 

Agitation  Elsewhere 

The  records  of  the  city  schools  of  this  period  show  the  same 
general  attitude  toward  the  subject.  A  music  teacher  was  em- 
ployed in  Chicago  about  1840  at  a  salary  of  sixteen  dollars  per 
month.  Owing  to  a  lack  of  funds  the  position  was  discontinued. 
In  1846  the  children  by  popular  subscription  paid  for  a  special 
teacher  of  singing.^® 

"  In  1848,  a  musical  convention  was  held  in  the  First  Baptist 
Church  in  Chicago,  in  which  singers  and  those  interested  in 
music  gathered  together  to  discuss  the  best  means  of  securing 
the  advantage  of  a  general  musical  education  for  the  young  of 

"  Quoted  from  Boston   School  Report,  1874,  274. 
**  Clark,  Public  Schools  of  Chicago. 


Music 


13 


the  city;  the  adoption  of  the  study  of  music  in  the  public 
schools  and  the  improvement  of  church  singing."^** 

Music  was  included  in  the  list  of  required  studies  for  the 
High  Schools  of  California  in  185 1. 

Milwaukee,  St.  Lx)uis,  and  Cincinnati  were  also  the  scenes 
of  early  activity  in  connection  with  music.  Indeed  the  German 
population  throughout  the  West  was  uniformly  aggressive  in 
this  particular. 

In  the  third  quarter  of  the  last  century  there  was  a  great 
spread  of  musical  conventions,  institutes  and  normals.  Music 
festivals  were  organized  all  over  the  country.  Many  of  these 
became  relatively  stable,  and  held  together  a  permanent  follow- 
ing. All  of  these  activities  served  the  purpose  of  not  only 
bringing  together  those  who  were  already  interested  in  singing, 
but  focusing  attention  in  such  a  way  that  a  popular  interest 
was  aroused. 

The  kindergarten  movement  contributed  not  a  little  to  the 
agitation  for  the  general  introduction  of  music  into  the  schools. 

R  eligio  us  Press  ure 

The  relation  between  school  music  and  the  religious  service 
has  at  all  times  been  prominent.  Other  things  being  equal, 
public  school  singing  has  not  advanced  so  rapidly  in  communi- 
ties dominated  by  religious  bodies  which  were  opposed  or  indif- 
ferent to  singing  in  the  church.  A  comparison  between  a  Quaker 
community  in  Pennsylvania  and  a  German  community  in  the 
Middle  West,  as  to  their  attitude  in  this  matter,  reveals  this 
quite  clearly. 

In  a  personal  interview  with  a  member  of  a  school  board, 
in  a  city  of  the  Central  West,  dominated  by  a  German  popula- 
tion, the  following  facts  were  brought  out.  A  supervisor  of 
music  was  employed  a  few  years  ago  who  proved  very  suc- 
cessful in  the  development  of  the  subject,  both  in  and  out  of 
school.  Oratorios  were  rendered,  festivals  were  held,  and  a 
large  orchestra  was  maintained.  This  influence  was  soon  felt 
in  the  churches  of  the  city.  At  length  this  supervisor  was  elected 
to  a  position  elsewhere.    When  this  was  made  public,  the  Board 

^Quoted  in  American  History  and  Encyclopedia  of  Music,  volume  on 
American  Music,  185. 


14  Social  Factors  Affecting  Special  Supervision 

was  made  the  subject  of  a  perfect  onslaught.  The  Sunday 
schools  could  not  afford  to  lose  this  man.  The  church  created 
such  a  pressure  that  the  supervisor's  salary  was  raised  beyond 
all  precedent. 

Attitude  unthin  the  School 

Thus  far  attention  has  been  directed  to  certain  changes  that 
have  taken  place  relative  to  music.  The  change  in  the  religious 
attitude  and  the  growth  in  popular  interest  in  singing  have  been 
pointed  out.  A  typical  example  of  the  means  used  in  securing 
the  introduction  of  instruction  in  vocal  music  in  the  public 
schools  has  been  given.  The  question  arises  as  to  the  reception 
given  to  this  demand  by  the  schoolmaster  himself.  Did  he 
respond  in  spirit  as  well  as  in  form?  Did  he  interpret  this 
demand  in  the  light  of  its  origin?  A  study  of  the  printed  state- 
ments in  the  school  reports  and  the  papers  read  at  the  educa- 
tional conventions  during  the  years  paralleling  the  widespread 
introduction  of  music  as  a  part  of  the  regular  curriculum,  leads 
one  to  the  conclusion  that  the  leaders  in  education  were  prone 
to  read  a  meaning  of  their  own  into  the  subject.  The  traditions 
of  the  schoolroom  were  such  that  it  seemed  necessary  to  look 
for  some  occult  "  educational "  value  in  order  to  give  sanction 
for  its  presence  in  the  schoolroom.  It  was  not  enough  to  have 
singing  for  its  own  sake;  psychological  belief  in  formal  disci- 
pline was  reflected  on  every  hand.^^ 

Statement  of  a  Leader  in  Public  School  Music 

A  department  of  music  instruction  was  organized  in  con- 
nection with  the  National  Education  Association  in  1885. 
At  that  meeting  the  President  of  this  section,  Mr.  Daniel  B. 
Hagar,  summarized  the  value  of  music  thus: 

I.     Music  as  a  means  of  Mental  Culture. 

(i)  Perceptive  faculties  .  .  .  The  teaching  of  the  simplest 
element  in  reading  gives  far  less  occasion  for  mental  action, 
than  the  teaching  of  a  corresponding  element  in  music,  and 
of  course  the  less  the  action  the  less  the  power  acquired. 
(2)  Next  in  order  after  the  perceptive  comes  memory  .... 
As  the  relations  of  music  involving  all  the  varieties  of  rhythm, 
and  melody  and  dynamics,  are  exceedingly  numerous,  the 
study  of  music  is  pre-eminently  adapted  to  the  culture  of 
the  memory. 

"  See  Proc,  N.  E.  A.,  1885  ct  seq. 


Music  1 5 

(3)  In  close  connection  with  memory  is  the  faculty  of  recollec- 
tion in  the  training  of  which  music  may  perform  an  im- 
portant part.     .     .     . 

(4)  That  the  study  of  music  tends  to  cultivate  the  imagination 
is  obvious,  for  there  is  no  emotion  or  passion  which  cannot 
gain  utterance  in  music. 

(5)  Again,  however,  the  faculty  of  reason  may  be  defined — and 
its  definitions  are  numerous — it  cannot  well  be  denied  that  a 
science  which  occasions  the  most  vigorous  exercise  of  the 
understanding  affords  ample  scope  for  the  reason. 

II.  In  the  second  place,  music  holds  an  important  relation  to  schools 
on  account  of  its  moral  power.  .  .  .  We  see  how  it  calms  the  troubled 
mind;  how  it  sheds  cheerfulness  upon  daily  toil;  how  it  revives  the 
drooping  spirits;  how  it  carries  the  sweetest  pleasures  into  the  family 
circle ;  how  it  lifts  the  soul  from  the  dull  plains  of  earth  to  the  celestial 
mountains. 

III.  In  the  third  place,  music  may  justly  claim  a  prominent  position  in 
schools  by  reason  of  its  influence  on  physical  culture.  Vocal  music  en- 
larges the  lungs,  expands  the  chest  and  gives  increased  vigor  to  all  its 
organs.  ...  I  have  not  a  doubt  that  the  early,  systematic  and  per- 
sistent practice  of  music  in  our  schools  would  be  instrumental  in  pro- 
longing thousands  of  lives,  and  in  saving  multitudes  from  that  direful 
disease — consumption." 

Intellectual  Value  Dominant 

The  value  suggested  in  the  last  paragraph  was  quite  gen- 
erally accepted  during  the  eighties.  Nevertheless,  the  intel- 
lectual value  was  uppermost  in  the  mind  of  the  schoolmaster. 
United  States  Commissioner  Dawson  said :  "A  view  of  the 
matter  not  frequently  taken,  is  that  of  Mr.  F.  B.  Richardson, 
Superintendent  of  Schools,  Woburn,  Massachusetts.  He  says, 
'  That  there  are  many  advantages  to  be  gained  by  the  study 
of  music  is  very  evident,  but  it  may  be  fairly  questioned  whether 
it  is  the  business  of  the  schools  to  teach  this  subject  as  an  art, 
and  measure  off  the  progress  of  the  pupils  by  the  amount  of 
pleasing  harmony  they  can  produce  at  a  given  time.  As  draw- 
ing is  taught,  not  to  make  a  finished  draughtsman,  but  to  train 
the  judgment  and  secure  attentive  observation,  so  music  should 
be  directed  toward  training  the  mind  in  such  a  Avay  as  to  give 
it  more  power,  not  merely  in  the  production  of  sweet  sounds, 
but  in  performing  the  ordinary  duties  of  life.  There  is  no 
room  in  the  curriculum  for  musical  training;  but  training  in 

^  Proc.  N.  E.  A.,  1885,  369-75. 


1 6  Social  Factors  Affecting  Special  Supervision 

music  properly  directed  may  be  made  of  great  value.  If  this 
distinction  and  the  limits  of  this  study  are  kept  clearly  in 
view,  the  efficiency  of  your  educational  system  may  be  in- 
creased by  devoting  an  hour  a  week  to  this  branch;  otherwise 
the  time  had  better  be  spent  on  some  other  phase  of  mental 
development.'  "^^ 

In  the  foregoing  statement  the  fear  lest  the  subject  be  taught 
from  the  art  standpoint  is  quite  significant  in  the  light  of  the 
long  prevailing  method  of  instruction  which  has  placed  chief 
emphasis  on  the  purely  formal  or  mechanical  side. 

Formal  Discipline 

As  a  further  illustration  of  the  attitude  which  the  school 
men  assumed  toward  music  the  following  is  suggestive:  Mr. 
W.  E.  Pulsifer  made  a  report  before  the  music  department  of 
the  National  Education  Association  in  1892,  which  attempted 
to  cover  the  "  educational  "  side  of  the  subject.  Mr.  Pulsifer 
reported  the  answers  to  a  list  of  questions  which  had  been 
submitted  to  a  number  of  the  prominent  educational  leaders 
of  the  time.  Definite  statements  were  received  from  over  forty 
of  these  men  in  answer  to  the  following  questions : 

1.  Do  you  consider  vocal  music,  as  it  should  be  taught  in 
the  schools,  a  means  of  stimulating  and  developing  the  mental 
faculties  ? 

2.  Which  particular  faculties  of  the  mind  do  you  think  vocal 
music  most  directly  stimulates? 

The  returns  from  this  group  of  men  were  practically  unani- 
mous to  the  effect  that  vocal  music  as  it  should  be  taught, 
would  serve  to  stimulate  and  to  develop  the  mental  faculties. 
No  hesitation  was  shown  in  the  matter  of  naming  the  various 
faculties  to  be  developed  by  the  proper  study  of  music.  These 
included  the  faculties  of:  perception,  memory,  judgment,  dis- 
crimination, imagination,  hearing,  beauty,  attention,  taste,  pre- 
cision, self-restraint,  subordination,  accuracy,  morals,  calculation, 
concentration,  seeing,  harmony,  love,  conscience,  reverence,  ad- 
miration, aesthetics,  will,  compassion,  observation,  "  the  phan- 
tasy." One  answer  is  worthy  of  complete  quotation :  "  I  believe 
no  study  can  claim  authority  over  music  in  developing  mental 

-'  Quoted  from  the  Report,  Commissioner  of  Education,  1887,  213. 


Music  17 

activity,  and  if  circumstances  attending  its  thorough  teaching 
are  perfect,  its  influence  is  at  once  apparent  in  all  other  studies, 
stimulating  and  lubricating  the  mental  faculties  to  wonderful 
attainments."'* 

Administrative  Means   Used  to  Secure  Instruction 

The  prevailing  administrative  plan  for  securing  instruction 
in  this  subject  has  been  to  divide  the  burden  of  responsibility 
between  special  teachers  or  supervisors  and  the  regular  teachers. 
Only  in  exceptional  instances  has  the  regular  teacher  been  held 
entirely  responsible  for  instruction  in   singing.-^ 

No  considerable  number  of  the  regular  teachers  are  required 
to  show  knowledge  of  music  as  a  requisite  to  certification.  This 
is  in  striking  contrast  to  the  situation  in  Germany,  where  the 
regular  teachers  are  thoroughly  trained  in  both  vocal  and  in- 
strumental music.-*^ 

Summary 

With  the  increased  recognition  of  the  value  of  music  as  an 
adjunct  to  worship  came  increased  attention  to  the  technique 
involved. 

The  controversy  over  method  resulted  in  the  widespread 
adoption  of  a  system  of  musical  notation. 

With  this  came  the  necessity  for  singing  schools  as  a  means 
for  transmission  of  the  formal  symbols.  Increased  interest 
in  congregational  singing  and  in  a  general  musical  culture  brought 
about  a  demand  for  popular  instruction  in  singing. 

This  demand  was  registered  in  the  public  schools  by  means 
of  organization  of  outside  groups — Boston  Academy  of  Music 
an  example. 

Public  opinion  was  for  a  long  time  apparently  satisfied  with 
the  official  recognition.  The  traditions  of  the  school  were  such 
that  the  intellectual  value  of  music  was  made  most  prominent. 

The  burden  of  responsibility  has  been  placed  in  charge  of 
special  teachers  or  supervisors,  rather  than  of  the  regular 
teachers. 


"*  Proc.  N.  E.  A.,  1892,  519-524.  The  curious  reader  is  referred  to  the 
complete  discussion  in  the  published  proceedings  for  a  more  detailed 
treatment  of  this  topic  including  the  names  of  the  correspondents. 

"  See  Chap.  XI. 

"Kandel,  The  Training  of  Elementary  Teachers  in  Germany,   135-168. 


CHAPTER  III 
DRAWING 

Early  Indifference 

A  number  of  causes  have  contributed  to  the  early  indifference 
in  regard  to  popular  instruction  in  drawing  in  this  country. 
Among  these  might  be  mentioned  the  fact  that  the  hardships 
attendant  to  a  pioneer  life  are  not  calculated  to  foster  artistic 
taste  or  creation.  Stern  necessity  places  such  a  high  premium 
upon  utility  that  art  as  such  is  driven  into  the  background. 
The  early  public  schools  centered  attention  around  the  bare 
essentials  necessary  for  practical  participation  within  the  group. 
The  few  who  had  an  interest  in  drawing  as  an  art  and  economic 
leisure  to  gratify  their  taste,  were  provided  for  by  means  of 
private  instruction  or  in  the  private  schools  where  it  was  usually 
taught  as  an  accomplishment  for  which  an  extra  charge  was 
made.^ 

Indeed  there  was  much  downright  prejudice  against  allowing 
children  to  "  waste  "  their  time  on  such  pursuits.  This  public 
displeasure  was  so  great  that  the  early  efforts  at  the  intro- 
duction of  drawing  as  a  part  of  the  public  school  curriculum 
met  with  almost  universal  failure. 

Scattering  Attempts  at  Drazving  Instruction 

In  1 82 1,  Wni.  Bentley  Fowle,  a  member  of  the  Boston  School 
Committee,  who  suddenly  came  into  the  position  of  head  master 
of  one  of  the  public  schools  of  that  city,  provided  instruction 
in  drawing.  Although  the  actual  work  is  said  to  have  been  suc- 
cessful, the  people  within  a  couple  of  years  succeeded  not  only 
in  eliminating  the  subject,  but  also  in  effecting  the  discharge 
of  the  head  master;  whereupon  Fowle  established  a  private 
school  for  girls  which  met  with  considerable  approval.    Here  he 

'  Clark,  Monograph  14,  in  Butler,  Education  in  United  States.  Also, 
Art  and  Industry,   Part  I,   XXXV. 

18 


Drawing  19 

was  able  to  select  students  with  a  narrower  range  of  taste  and 
practical  necessity.^ 

The  early  attempt  at  the  introduction  of  the  subject  in  Phila- 
delphia, Baltimore,  Cleveland  and  elsewhere  met  with  similar 
opposition.^ 

In  Boston  the  advocates  succeeded  in  getting  the  school  com- 
mittee in  1827  to  make  drawing  a  permissive  study  in  the  upper 
class.  But  little  came  of  this,  however,  because  of  the  lack  of 
teaching  facilities.  Even  after  the  subject  was  placed  on  the 
required  list  in  1836,  the  results  were  meagre.  In  order  to 
improve  the  situation  Miss  E.  P.  Peabody  did  gratuitous  service 
as  a  teacher  of  drawing  in  1838-9.  This  was  followed  by  a 
special  course  of  instruction  for  teachers.  However,  the  results 
were  only  temporarily  improved.* 

Insufficient  Pressure  to  Insure  Persistent  Attention 

The  impetus  which  was  given  to  the  work  by  individual  initia- 
tive was  of  value,  but  there  was  lacking  the  social  pressure 
necessary  for  the  promotion  of  serious  and  continuous  consid- 
eration of  the  subject.  Not  until  several  decades  later  do  we 
find  this  pressure  sufficiently  strong  to  actually  bring  about  a 
widespread  change  in  the  practice  in  the  schoolrooms  of  Boston. 
The  early  drawing  enthusiasts  lacked  a  popular  sanction. 

Economic  Value  of  Drawing 

Drawing  really  made  little  headway  until  it  was  associated 
with  an  economic  value;  with  the  economic  interpretation,  em- 
phasis was  largely  placed  on  the  mechanical  side.  As  early  as 
1747  Benjamin  Franklin  saw  the  economic  value  of  drawing 
and  enumerated  it  in  his  proposed  course  of  study  for  the 
Academy  of  the  day.  He  included  it  with  writing  and  arith- 
metic as  a  study  of  utility." 

Popular  acceptance  of  this  belief,  however,  was  delayed  for 
over  a  century.     In  the  matter  of  creating  public  sentiment  the 

"^  Clarke,  Monograph  14,  in  Butler,  Education  in  United  States.  Draw- 
ing in  Public  Schools,  pp.  4-8. 

^Ihid,  13-34- 

*  Ibid,  13. 

"  Proposals  Relating  to  Education,  Benjamin  Franklin.  Smyth,  Life 
and  Writings  of  Benjamin  Franklin,  II,  391. 


20  Social  Factors  Affecting  Special  Supervision 

activities  of  Dr.  Barnard  and  Horace  Mann  deserve  mention. 
In  1838,  Dr.  Barnard  published  in  the  October  number  of  the 
Connecticut  Common  School  Journal,  Professor  Stovve's  report 
to  the  Ohio  Legislature  on  the  Prussian  schools.  In  the  report 
emphasis  is  placed  on  the  value  of  Drawing  and  Designing. 
In  the  reports  on  foreign  schools  which  were  published  within 
the  succeeding  years,  Dr.  Barnard  continuously  directed  atten- 
tion to  the  utilitarian  side  of  drawing  as  a  part  of  public  edu- 
cation. This  same  note  was  apparent  in  his  public  appeal  in 
which  he  emphasized  the  value  of  drawing  to  the  artisan." 

Horace  Mann  also  was  a  valiant  advocate  of  the  subject.  His 
ideas  were  clearly  set  forth  in  his  Seventh  Annual  Report  which 
appeared  in  1844. 

"  But  suppose  it  were  otherwise  and  that  learning  to  draw  re- 
tarded the  acquisition  of  good  penmanship,  how  richly  would 
the  learner  be  compensated  by  the  sacrifice !  .  .  .  For  the 
master  architect,  for  the  engraver,  the  engineer,  the  pattern 
designer,  the  draughtsman,  moulder,  machine  builder  or  head 
mechanic  of  any  kind,  all  acknowledge  that  this  art  is  essential 
and  indispensable.  But  there  is  no  department  of  business  or 
condition  in  life  where  this  accomplishment  might  not  be  of 
utility.  Every  man  should  be  able  to  plot  a  field,  to  sketch  a 
wood  or  river,  to  draw  the  outline  of  a  simple  machine,  a  piece 
of  household  furniture  or  a  farming  utensil  and  to  delineate 
the  internal  arrangement  or  construction  of  a  house.  .  .  . 
Whatever  advances  the  mechanic  and  manufacturing  arts,  there- 
fore, is  especially  important  here.'"' 

Concerning  the  influence  of  Mann,  Superintendent  Philbrick 
said,  "As  one  of  the  results  of  Mr.  Mann's  report  on  foreign 
education,  the  school  committees  of  Boston  in  1848  placed  the 
word  drawing  in  the  list  of  grammar  school  studies."® 

English  Influence 

In  1 85 1  an  event  took  place  which  had  great  significance  in 
this  connection.  In  that  year  was  held  the  First  International 
Exposition  in  Londdn.  The  showing  made  by  the  products 
of  the  English  artisans  was  so  poor  in  comparison  with  that 
made  by  the  exhibits  of  the  continental  workers  that  prompt 

'Files  of  Barnard's  Journals  XXI   (entire  series)  have  a  summary  of 
European  conditions. 
^Life  and  Works  of  Horace  Mann,  III,  327-9. 
®  Report  of  Boston  School  Committee,  1874. 


Drawing  21 

and  decisive  action  was  taken  by  the  English  authorities  to 
stimulate  new  interest  in  educational  means  of  improving  this 
condition,  through  the  teaching  of  industrial  drawing  and  design. 
The  experiment  attracted  a  good  bit  of  interest  in  this  country 
and  the  experience  of  England  was  fully  capitalized.  From  1857 
to  1861  M.  A.  Dwight  published  a  series  of  articles  on  "Art 
as  an  important  Branch  of  Education  "  in  Barnard's  American 
Journal  of  Education,  which  attracted  much  attention.'-*  Interest 
grew  till  in  i860  the  Legislature  of  Massachusetts,  largely 
through  the  instrumentality  of  its  manufacturing  interest,  made 
drawing  a  permissive  study. 

Meagre  Results 

Placing  drawing  on  the  permissive  list  had  little  real  effect 
either  in  the  earlier  case  of  Boston  or  in  the  State  at  large. 
Concerning  the  Boston  experience  Superintendent  Philbrick  said : 
"As  the  teachers  were  almost  universally  ignorant  of  this  branch, 
and  as  not  the  slightest  provision  was  made  for  teaching  it 
.  .  .  next  to  nothing  came  of  this  action.  The  prevailing 
ignorance  in  regard  to  the  subject  was  only  equalled  by  the 
indifference  respecting  it.  If  a  progressive  teacher  tried  to  get 
up  a  little  drawing  in  the  school,  he  was  likely  to  get  a  gentle 
rebuke  from  his  committee  and  some  blame  from  his  fellow 
teachers."^** 

Divergent  Points  of  Viczv  as  to  Value  of  Drazving 

The  reports  made  by  the  various  cities  in  this  period  to  the 
Massachusetts  State  Board  are  full  of  references  to  the  attempts 
at  instruction  in  this  subject.  In  most  cases  much  space  is  given 
to  setting  forth  the  advantages  to  be  gained  from  the  pursuit 
of  this  study.  There  was  little  unanimity,  however,  in  the  point 
of  view,  except  that  there  was  the  general  fear  that  the  children 
might  waste  their  time  and  get  only  pleasure  from  the  practice. 
The  following  is  suggestive :  "  Drawing  is  always  an  amusing 
exercise  for  children  and  we  think  that  teachers  have  allowed 
it  to  become  too  exclusively  an  amusing  exercise. "^^ 

'Barnard's  American  Journal,  XXII,  225-83.    Also  IV-VII. 

"  Boston  School  Report,  1874. 

"  Massachusetts  School  Report,  1863. 


2  2  Social  Factors  Affecting  Special  Supervision 

This  suggestion  of  the  use  of  drawing  as  a  form  of  "  busy 
work  "  has  a  parallel  in  the  treatment  of  certain  of  the  newer 
subjects  on  the  part  of  the  untrained  teacher.  With  the  state- 
ment of  purpose  expressed  by  the  school  authorities  themselves, 
it  is  not  surprising  to  find  that  teachers  tended  to  follow  the 
line  of  least  resistance. 

The  following  extract  from  the  report  of  Berlin,  Massachu- 
setts, in  1864,  is  suggestive  of  the  range  of  values  ascribed  to 
drawing :  "Another  branch  for  which  we  bespeak  encouragement 
in  school  and  at  home,  is  that  of  drawing, — map  drawing,  pic- 
ture drawing,  and  all  forms  of  diagrams.  It  is  wdthin  the 
memory  of  some,  when  to  draw  a  picture  of  a  horse  or  dog 
upon  the  slate,  however  soberly,  was  a  serious  oflfence  in  the 
school  room.  Better  views  prevail.  No  employment  is  more 
profitable  or  pleasant  even  to  the  little  scholars  in  the  primer. 
It  employs  time  and  improves  the  eyes  and  the  hand  and  the 
taste.  It  is  vastly  helpful  in  mathematics ;  above  all  in  geogra- 
phy. The  appreciation  of  the  subject  in  life  is  manifold.  It 
is  not  an  art  useful  only  to  the  painter,  the  architect  and  the 
engineer — it  belongs  to  the  farmer,  the  carpenter,  the  smith  and 
the  mechanic.  The  schoolroom  is  the  place  to  cultivate  it,  but 
it  will  be  found  a  pleasure  everywhere,  as  well  as  an  art  uni- 
versally useful.     Let  parents  encourage  drawing  at  home.     It 

will   afiford   profitable   recreation    as    well    as    mental   improve- 
ment."^2 

The  Effects  of  the  French  Exhibition  of  186/ 

The  French  Exhibition  of  1867  served  to  focus  attention 
again  on  the  economic  aspect  of  the  subject.  The  showing 
which  England  made  at  this  exhibit  indicated  that  a  remark- 
able degree  of  progress  had  been  made  since  the  earlier  display 
of  1 85 1.  This  improvement  was  in  large  measure  attributed  to 
the  increased  attention  that  had  been  given  to  industrial  draw- 
ing and  design  as  a  means  of  education.  The  whole  thing  made 
a  great  impression,  not  only  in  England  but  in  this  country. 
The  industrial  leaders  of  Massachusetts  were  especially  im- 
pressed with  the  educational  significance.  This  crystalized  in  a 
petition  which  was  sent  to  the  State  Legislature  in  June,  1869, 
the  full  text  of  which  follows: 


"  Massachusetts   Report,   1864. 


Drawing  23 

"  To  THE  Honorable  Court  of  the  State  of  Massachusetts: 

Your  petitioners  respectfully  represent  that  every  branch  of 
manufacturing  in  which  the  citizens  of  Massachusetts  are  en- 
gaged, requires  in  the  details  of  the  processes  connected  with 
it,  some  knowledge  of  drawing  and  other  arts  of  design  on  the 
part  of  the  skilled  workmen  engaged. 

At  the  present  time  no  wide  provision  is  made  for  instruction 
in  drawing  in  the  public  schools. 

Our  manufacturers  therefore  compete  under  disadvantages 
with  the  manufacturers  of  Europe,  for  in  all  of  the  manufac- 
turing countries  of  Europe  free  provision  is  made  for  instruct- 
ing workmen  of  all  classes  in  drawing.  At  this  time  nearly 
all  the  best  draughtsmen  in  our  shops  are  men  thus  trained 
abroad. 

In  England,  within  the  last  ten  years,  very  large  additions 
have  been  made  to  the  provisions,  which  wxre  before  very  gen- 
erous, for  the  public  instruction  of  workmen  in  drawing;  your 
petitioners  are  assured  that  boys  and  girls,  by  the  time  they  are 
sixteen  years  of  age,  acquire  great  proficiency  in  mechanical 
drawing  and  in  other  arts  of  design. 

We  are  also  assured  that  men  and  women  who  have  been 
long  engaged  in  the  processes  of  manufacture  learn  rapidly,  and 
with  pleasure,  enough  of  the  arts  of  design  to  assist  them  ma- 
terially in  their  work. 

For  such  reasons  we  ask  that  the  Board  of  Education  may 
be  directed  to  report  in  detail  to  the  next  general  court  some 
definite  plan  for  introducing  schools  for  drawing, — free  to  all 
men,  women  and  children,  in  all  towns  of  the  Commonwealth 
of  more  than  five  thousand  inhabitants."^" 

Results  of  Petition 

This  clean  cut  statement  of  the  economic  value  of  drawing, 
supported  by  a  group  of  highly  respected  industrial  leaders 
served  to  generate  a  pressure  which  brought  drawing  into  the 
public  mind  in  a  way  hitherto  unknown ;  at  last  the  subject 
had  a  sanction  which  was  calculated  to  win  popular  approval. 
The  final  outcome  of  this  petition  and  the  agitation  which  fol- 
lowed was  the  famous  Act  of  1870,  which  read: 

An  Act,  relating  to  free  instruction  in  drawing — Be  it  enacted,  etc.,  as 

follows : 
Section   i.     The   first  section   of   Chapter  Thirty-eight  of   the  general 
statutes  is  hereby  amended  so  as  to  include  drawing  among  the  branches 

"  Bailey,  Drawing,  No.   1-15. 


a  4  Social  Factors  Affecting  Special  Supervision 

of  learning  which  are  by  said  section  required  to  be  taught  in  the  Public 
Schools. 

Section  2.  Any  city  or  town  may,  and  every  city  or  town  having 
more  than  ten  thousand  inhabitants  shall,  annually  make  provision  for 
giving  free  instruction  in  industrial  or  mechanical  drawing  to  persons 
over  fifteen  years  of  age  either  in  day  or  evening  schools,  under  the 
direction  of  the  School  Committee. 

Section  3.  This  Act  shall  take  effect  upon  its  passage  (approved 
May  16,  1870)." 

It  is  interesting  to  note  the  compulsory  provision  made  in  the 
matter  of  instruction  in  drawing  in  cities  with  a  population 
above  ten  thousand.  Especial  attention  is  also  called  to  the 
description  of  the  subject  "  mechanical  or  industrial  "  which  is 
in  exact  accordance  with  the  arguments  which  were  being  put 
forth  in  favor  of  its  introduction. 

Transfer  of  English  Leader 

The  enactment  of  this  law  was  followed  by  the  establishment 
of  the  Massachusetts  Normal  Art  School  in  1873.  Walter 
Smith,  who  had  been  closely  identified  with  the  same  field  in 
England,  was  placed  in  general  charge  of  the  administration  of 
this  school  and  of  the  provisions  of  the  law  in  Boston  and 
in  the  State.  Smith  thus  was  in  a  position  to  wield  a  tre- 
mendous influence  in  determining  the  direction  toward  which 
instruction  should  go.  -Within  the  next  decade  he  was  the  lead- 
ing figure  in  the  whole  movement.  He  lectured  widely  and 
wrote  much.  His  manual  published  in  1873  served  as  a  guide 
in  many  other  sections  of  the  country. 

Industrial  Nature  of  Drawing 

Concerning  the  industrial  nature  of  this  manual,  Henry 
Turner  Bailey  said :  "  Mr.  Smith's  Manual  of  1873  was  called 
a  manual  of  '  Free  Hand  Drawing  and  Designing.'  Mechanical 
drawing  as  such,  was  not  mentioned  therein  as  an  essential 
factor  in  elementary  instruction.  In  glancing  through  the  plates 
of  that  book,  however,  one  is  impressed  with  the  mechanical 
character  of  all  the  illustrations.  Not  a  single  drawing  has  a 
free  hand  appearance;  on  the  contrary,  ruled  construction  lines 

"  Bailey,   Drawing,  No.    1-15. 


Drawing  25 

abound,  and  the  terminology  employed  in  the  text  smacks  of  the 
drafting  room  rather  than  the  studio."^^ 

Thus  by  concerted  action  the  industrial  leaders  were  able  in 
a  way  to  transplant  the  system  which  had  been  successful  in 
England,  in  a  comparatively  short  time. 

Attempts  Elsewhere 

Meanwhile 'scattering  attempts  had  been  made  in  other  sec- 
tions of  this  country.  Drawing  was  included  in  the  list  of 
subjects  in  the  first  New  York  High  School  for  Boys  which  was 
opened  in  1825.^*^ 

The  report  of  the  Philadelphia  schools  for  1840  in  discussing 
the  changes  in  the  Central  High  School  of  that  city,  says : 
"  The  department  of  drawing  and  writing  by  Rembrandt  Peale 
went  into  operation  in  February  of  this  year."" 

It  is  interesting  to  note  the  connection  of  penmanship  and 
drawing.  These  were  thought  to  have  much  in  common  in  the 
early  days.  This  served  as  one  of  the  practical  sanctions  for 
drawing  instruction.  In  1842  Rembrandt  Peale  urged  the  neces- 
sity of  courses  in  drawing  in  the  other  schools  of  Philadelphia. 
However  his  offer  of  gratuitous  service  in  superintending  the 
introduction  of  the  subject  in  the  elementary  schools  received 
little  encouragement.  Although  the  work  was  offered  in  the 
High  School  for  many  years,  the  attempts  in  the  elementary 
schools  were  soon  abandoned.  Peale  is  said  to  have  had  two 
great  ambitions :  one  to  introduce  drawing  instruction  to  the 
masses ;  the  other  to  paint  a  creditable  portrait  of  Washington. 
In  the  latter  he  was  quite  successful  as  the  Peale  portrait  of 
the  first  president  is  well  known. ^^ 

By  1848  William  Minifie  had  organized  a  systematic  course 
of  instruction  in  the  Baltimore  schools  He  was  soon  dismissed 
however.^^ 

In  1849  Cleveland  introduced  drawing  as  a  regular  subject 
of  instruction.    A  specialist  was  employed  who  secured  excellent 

"  Bailey,  Drawing,  No.  3.  94. 

"  First  .'\nnual  Report  of  the  High  School  Society,  6-7. 

"  Report  of  the  Philadelphia  Schools.   1840,   18. 

"  Hart,  in  a  letter  quoted  in  Clarke.  Drawing  in  American  Schools,  15. 

"Clarke,   Drawing  in  American    Schools,   31-32. 


26  Social  Factors  Affecting  Special  Supervision 

results ;  however,  not  until  two  decades  later  do  we  find  a  perma- 
nent policy  relating  to  the  subject.-^ 

The  State  Legislature  of  California  included  drawing  as  one 
of  the  list  of  required  subjects.-^ 

In  1862  drawing  was  added  to  the  curriculum  of  the  Cincin- 
nati schools.  Two  years  later  two  special  teachers  were  ap- 
pointed to  instruct  in  this  subject.  In  1868  a  superintendent  of 
the  subject  was  appointed.  A  little  later  a  full  corps  of  assist- 
ants was  added  so  that  by  1870  the  work  was  under  full  sway.^^ 

Thus  it  is  seen  that  in  the  latter  part  of  the  sixties  the 
forces  which  had  been  operative  in  Massachusetts  had  been  to 
a  greater  or  less  extent  operating  in  other  sections.  When  to 
this  fertile  field  of  suggestibility  was  added  a  powerful  example 
for  imitation,  as  in  the  case  of  the  advance  steps  taken  in 
Massachusetts,  it  is  small  wonder  that  we  find  drawing  as  one 
of  the  chief  centers  of  interest  and  discussion  in  the  decade 
which  followed.  As  is  to  be  expected  on  account  of  the  pre- 
vailing economic  sanction,  this  influence  spread  most  rapidly 
to  the  urban  population  given  over  to  industrial  pursuits. 

In  1875  the  New  York  Legislature  passed  a  law  requiring 
instruction  in  drawing  in  the  elementary  schools.  The  reports 
of  state  and  city  superintendents  of  schools  teem  with  recom- 
mendations relative  to  the  subject. 

As  the  movement  gained  headway  under  the  economic  impetus 
of  the  seventies,  there  was  a  rapid  shifting  on  the  part  of  the 
leaders  in  education.  From  the  report  of  Henry  Kiddle,  of 
New  York  City,  1875,  the  following  account  is  taken:  "The 
results  (in  drawing)  have  varied  much  in  different  schools, 
and,  under  the  impression  that  the  system  pursued  is  not  suf- 
ficiently uniform  and  progressive,  the  Superintendent  recom- 
mends that  the  course  be  revised  and  the  system  be  re-organized 
on  the  industrial  basis  now  popular  in  Massachusetts  and  else- 
where."^^ 

Similar  illustrations  of  the  adoption  of  the  new  point  of  view 
abound. 


^Freese,  Early  History  of  Cleveland  Public  Schools. 
"  California  Statutes,   1851,  Ch.   126,  Art.  7,  Sec.  2. 
"  Shotwell,  Schools  of  Cincinnati. 
"  Quoted   in   Commissioner's   Report,    1875,   295. 


Drawing  27 

Impetus  Given  to  Drawing  by  Centennial  Exposition 

The  Centennial  Exposition  at  Philadelphia  in  1876  contributed 
powerfully  to  this  movement.  Not  only  did  the  exhibit  of  the 
foreign  nations  attract  great  attention,  but  the  showing  niade 
by  the  exhibitors  in  this  country  serv^ed  as  an  illustration  of 
possibilities  to  be  attained  that  had  hitherto  been  undreamed  of. 
Smith's  exhibit  of  the  work  of  the  Massachusetts  schools  cre- 
ated much  enthusiasm.  From  this  time  on  there  has  been  a 
steady  increase  in  the  number  of  schools  providing  instruction 
in  this  branch  and  in  the  amount  of  time  and  money  devoted 
to  it.2* 

Varying  Conceptions 

Thus  did  the  forces  accumulate  which  brought  drawing  into 
the  schools.  As  in  the  case  of  other  movements  of  a  similar 
nature  this  gathered  together  a  group  of  people,  who,  although 
united  in  their  demand  for  drawing  in  the  schools,  had  funda- 
mentally different  conceptions  of  the  means  and  the  ends  in- 
volved. The  manufacturers  saw  in  this  an  opportunity  of 
getting  a  superior  type  of  artisan.  The  student  of  social  prob- 
lems looked  to  this  as  a  means  of  improving  the  earning  capacity 
and  usefulness  of  the  workingman.  Judging  from  the  accounts 
of  the  difficulties  found  in  securing  a  satisfactory  attendance 
at  the  early  evening  schools,  the  workingman  himself  saw  little 
in  it." 

Reception  zmthin  the  School 

Interest  attaches  to  the  attitude  of  the  school  people  toward 
the  new  subject.  A  study  of  the  reports  and  addresses  of  the 
period  reveals  the  same  general  spirit  as  was  noted  in  the  case 
of  music.  The  teachers  were  for  the  most  part  either  unable 
or  unwilling  to  undertake  the  added  burden. 

The  practical  end  involved  in  instruction  in  industrial  draw- 
ing not  only  involved  the  necessity  of  a  fair  measure  of  tech- 
nical skill  on  the  part  of  the  teacher,  but  there  was  also  the 
necessity  for  building  up  a  class-room  technique  from  the  stand- 
point of  teaching  method. 

"  Cubberley,  Changing  Conceptions  of  Education,  40.  Dexter,  History 
of  Education  in  United  States,  404.  Later  tables  in  this  study  reveal 
the  spread  of  this  practice. 

**  Reports,  Commissioner  of  Education  of  the  period. 


28  Social  Factors  Affecting  Special  Supervision 

Neglect  on  the  Part  of  Regular  Teachers 

It  is  not  surprising  that  the  regular  teacher  tended  to  neglect 
the  work  under  one  pretext  or  another.  In  1874  Superintendent 
Philbrick  of  Boston  gave  a  full  account  of  this  neglect  and  the 
attempt  on  the  part  of  the  school  committee  to  bring  added 
pressure  on  the  teachers  by  making  it  obligatory  upon  each  in 
the  primary  and  grammar  schools  to  give  one  hour  each  week 
to  drawing  instruction.-*' 

This  neglect  was  in  general  quite  irrespective  of  the  fact 
that  the  subject  was  officially  included  in  the  curriculum.  Wal- 
ter Perry  whose  work  was  of  such  nature  that  he  was  in  a  posi- 
tion to  have  a  fairly  accurate  view  of  this  neglect,  said  in 
1887:  "  I  think  I  am  safe  in  saying  that  in  more  than  half  of 
the  schools  that  claim  to  teach  drawing,  the  subject  is  merely 
mentioned  in  the  course  of  study  and  not  much  else  can  be 
said  of  it.     The  teachers  do  little  or  nothing  with  it."^^ 

Difficulty  in  Sticking  to  Industrial  Purpose 

From  the  published  utterances  of  the  various  leaders  in  this 
branch  of  instruction,  the  impression  is  gained  that  much  diffi- 
culty was  found  in  keeping  the  work  in  the  school  clearly  headed 
on  industrial  lines.  L.  S.  Thompson,  of  Indiana,  in  1881  said : 
"  By  industrial  drawing,  I  mean  the  study  of  form  as  exhibited 
in  natural  and  artificial  objects  ....  When  properly 
taught  it  is  more  nearly  an  industrial  education  within  itself 
than  any  other  one  study,  and  yet  in  a  majority  of  schools 
it  is  regarded  as  something  merely  ornamental  in  character, 
having  little  or  no  practical  value."^^ 

Intellectual  Value  Uppermost 

Of  this  tendency  to  break  away  from  the  "  industrial "  idea 
of  drawing,  Miss  Mary  Hicks,  of  Boston,  said  in  1903  before 
the  International  Congress  of  Education :  "  Everywhere  the 
work  of  the  supervisor  of  drawing  was  to  direct  the  drawing 
mainly  toward  industrial  design  as  a  means  of  improving  the 
industrial  products  of  the  country,  increasing  the  wage  earning 

"  Boston  School  Report,  1874. 
"Proc.  N.  E.  A.,  1887,  573-7. 
"  Proc.  N.  E.  A.,  1881,  248. 


Drawing  29 

power  of  the  people  and  adding  to  the  material  prosperity. 
Then  came  the  idea  that  drawing  was  a  mode  of  expressing 
thought  and  that  hence  it  should  be  cultivated  as  a  means  of 
mental  development."  This  is  not  surprising  in  view  of  the 
fundamentally  intellectual  nature  of  the  school  room  and  its  tra- 
ditions. The  following  quotation  from  a  school  superintendent 
of  Pennsylvania  is  suggestive  of  this  change :  "  The  old  style 
drawing  consisted  principally  of  picture  making  from  copies. 
The  new  is  an  intellectual  study;  the  thought,  ingenuity,  and 
invention  of  the  scholar  in  the  line  of  art  as  applied  to  indus- 
trial pursuits.  The  influence  of  this  branch  is  manifold;  it 
especially  develops:  (i)  Observation;  (2)  forethought;  (3) 
painstaking;  (4)  taste,  imagination;  (5)  memory  of  forms;  (6) 
power  to  discriminate — judgment;  (7)  ease  and  precision  in  the 
movements  of  the  hand.  No  profession,  calling  or  business  can 
be  brought  to  mind  that  does  not  call  for  such  mental  and 
physical  culture.  As  drawing  is  opposed  to  carelessness,  haste, 
tad  forms,  and  clumsy  execution,  it  is  a  valuable  art  in  teach- 
ing writing."^^ 

In  the  last  sentence  there  is  a  survival  of  one  of  the  early 
sanctions  for  instruction  in  drawing:  namely  that  it  might  be 
an  aid  to  penmanship.  Here  we  also  find  a  clear  acceptance 
of  the  prevailing  conception  of  the  doctrine  of  formal  discipline. 

Mental  Discipline  in  Drawing 

In  1888  Colonel  I.  Edward  Clarke  of  the  United  States  Bureau 
of  Education,  who  had  spent  several  years  in  gathering  together 
the  material  relative  to  Art  and  Industry  in  connection  with 
the  schools  of  this  country  and  was  without  doubt  better  ac- 
quainted with  the  situation  than  any  other  man  of  the  period, 
thus  summarized  the  prevailing  belief : 

"  The  value  of  drawing  as  a  means  of  mental  discipline  is 
believed  to  be  not  inferior  to  that  of  any  of  the  studies  at 
present  included  in  the  curriculum  of  the  Public  Schools.  It 
is,  therefore,  not  only  because  of  its  direct  application  to  the 
industries  and  art  and  hence  of  economic  value  to  the  pupil, 
that  this  study  of  drawing  has  a  claim  to  admission  into  the 
public  schools.  Its  value  as  a  means  of  developing  and  train- 
ing the  intellectual  faculties  is  so  well  established,  from  the  pro- 

"  Report  of  Schools,  Erie,  Pennsylvania,  1877-8. 


30  Social  Factors  Affecting  Special  Supervision 

fessional  point  of  view  of  the  teacher,  and,  regarded  merely 
as  an  instrument  of  pedagogics,  the  progressive  system  of 
,  .  .  .  industrial  drawing  can  readily  establish  its  claim  for 
introduction  into  the  elementary  course  of  instruction  on  educa- 
tional grounds  alone.  ...  In  urging  that  industrial  draw- 
ing be  taught  in  all  public  schools,  it  has  been  necessary  to 
so  emphasize  the  practical  character  and  economic  value  of  the 
study  that  equally  just  claims  of  other  studies  may  seem  to 
have  been  neglected."^" 

From  the  foregoing  it  can  be  seen  that  the  outside  forces 
which  were  operative  in  the  w'idespread  introduction  of  drawing 
in  the  public  schools  in  the  seventies  were  almost  wholly 
economic.  The  introduction  started  on  a  purely  utilitarian  or 
industrial  basis  and  was  influenced  largely  by  English  thought.^^ 

When  this  subject  came  under  the  influence  of  the  traditions 
of  the  school  it  was  subject  in  a  large  measure  to  a  different 
interpretation.  There  was  a  constant  tendency  to  treat  it  apart 
from  its  industrial  and  utilitarian  significance.  There  w^as  a 
widespread  tendency  to  look  for  purely  intellectual  values  in 
the  light  of  formal  training  of  the  eye  and  hand. 

The  varying  interpretations  given  to  the  subject  are  reflected 
in  the  changing  titles  used.  At  first  it  was  known  as  Indus- 
trial Art  drawing.  The  word  art  quickly  lost  its  significance 
and  the  term  became  Industrial  drawing  with  a  rather  clear 
implication.  To-day  the  word  industrial  has  dropped  almost 
entirely  out  of  use  and  the  subject  is  simply  know-n  as  draw- 
ing. The  present  tendency  is  distinctly  toward  the  art  side. 
It  would  be  of  interest  to  know  what,  if  any,  relation  exists 
between  the  decline  of  the  industrial  phase  and  the  rapid  in- 
crease in  the  proportion  of  women  as  special  teachers  or  super- 
visors of  the  subject.  Reference  to  a  later  section  shows  that 
in  1908,  eighty-five  per  cent  of  these  were  women. 

Plan   of  Administration 

Reference  has  already  been  made  to  the  fact  that  there  wa? 
great  difficulty  in  getting  the  regular  teacher  to  undertake  seri- 
ously the  burden  of  responsibility  in  regard  to  instruction  in 
this  subject.     The  number  of  cities  employing  special  teachers 

'"Clark,  Art  and  Industry,   Part  I,  CXXII. 

'^  MacAllister,  Commissioner  of  Education  Report,  1894-5,  793-8o3. 


Drawing  31 

and  supervisors  has  steadily  increased.  In  1888  about  fifty  per 
cent  of  the  cities  of  Massachusetts  provided  special  teachers 
or  supervisors  of  drawing.  In  1899  regular  instruction  in 
drawing  was  given  to  ninety-eight  per  cent  of  the  pupils  of 
the  State.  Ninety  per  cent  of  these  pupils  were  receiving  this 
instruction  under  special  teaching  or  supervision.^^ 

The  growth  of  this  practice  has  been  rapid  throughout  the 
whole  country  within  the  last  few  years.^^ 

Summary 

The  early  pioneer  life  was  not  conducive  to  the  development 
of  interest  in  drawing  as  it  was  then  interpreted. 

The  early  scattering  attempts  at  the  introduction  of  drawing 
as  a  part  of  the  school  work,  failed  because  of  the  popular 
prejudice  against  drawing  considered  as  an  accomplishment. 
Dr.  Barnard  and  Horace  Mann  directed  attention  to  the  value 
of  drawing  as  an  aid  to  the  artisan.  In  doing  this  they  cited 
the  example  of  certain  foreign  countries. 

The  reaction  in  England  following  the  London  Exhibit  of 
185 1  in  which  drawing  and  design  received  much  attention, 
served  to  increase  interest  in  this  country  in  the  economic 
aspect  of  the  work. 

The  English  Exhibit  at  the  French  Exhibition  of  1867  so 
enthused  certain  manufacturing  interests  of  Massachusetts  that 
advanced  steps  were  taken  to  provide  for  general  instruction  in 
drawing. 

The  English  influence  was  further  increased  through  the 
activity  of  Walter  Smith. 

The  Philadelphia  Exposition  seemed  to  direct  popular  atten- 
tion to  the  value  of  drawing  in  such  a  way  that  a  widespread 
introduction  of  the  subject  into  the  public  schools  followed. 

The  traditions  of  the  school  were  such  that  the  industrial 
side  of  drawing  was  pushed  to  the  margin  while  emphasis  was 
given  to  the  intellectual  and  aesthetic  values.  The  burden  of 
responsibility  as  in  the  case  of  music  has  been  placed  in  charge 
of  special  teachers  and  supervisors  rather  than  of  the  regular 
teacher. 


"  Henry  Turner  Bailey,  Drawing,  No.  3, 
»  See  Chap.  VIII. 


CHAPTER  IV 
MANUAL  TRAINING 

Social  and  Economic  Changes 

Inquiry  into  the  sanction  back  of  the  introduction  of  manual 
training  into  the  schools  leads  one  to  a  close  inspection  of  the 
changes  in  the  economic  and  social  life  of  the  people  during  the 
latter  part  of  the  last  century. 

The  nineteenth  century  marked  the  rise  and  development  of 
a  new  type  of  industrial  activity  in  the  country.  The  gradual 
shift  away  from  agrarian  and  purely  commercial  interests  to 
that  of  manufacturing  which  has  been  such  a  marked  feature 
of  the  last  half  century,  had  scarcely  begun  by  the  close  of  the 
War  of  1812.1 

With  this  change  in  economic  activity  urbanization  steadily 
increased.  The  massing  of  population  brought  new  problems, 
opportunities  and  responsibilities.  As  the  number  of  people 
increased  in  these  units,  there  was  a  greater  opportunity  for 
division  of  labor  in  all  lines  of  human  activity. 

With  this  has  come  about  almost  the  complete  disappearance 
of  the  old  system  of  apprenticeship.  As  the  struggle  became 
more  refined  new  aspects  appeared  on  the  surface.  Under  the 
new  order  every  man  became  a  potential  producing  agent  in 
this  struggle.  In  industrial  centers  this  has,  as  was  seen  in 
connection  with  the  development  of  drawing,  pointed  toward 
the  desirability  of  giving  special  instruction  to  this  potential 
producer  that  would  increase  his  producing  power.  Owing  to 
the  complexities  of  the  new  industrial  order,  conditions  were 
not  favorable  to  a  restoration  of  the  apprenticeship  system ;  nor 
were  the  manufacturers  willing  to  bear  the  expense  connected 
with  special  schools  of  their  own. 

'  Carlton,  Economic  Influences  on  Education,  Bulletin  University  of 
Wisconsin,  1908,  629-633. 

32 


Manual  Training  33 

Relation  of  Manual  Training  to  Drawing 

Reference  has  been  made  in  a  preceding  chapter  to  the  part 
played  by  the  industrial  forces  in  the  introduction  of  drawing 
and  the  industrial  turn  which  was  at  first  given  to  this  subject. 
The  relation  which  existed  between  the  early  development  of 
manual  training  and  industrial  drawing  seemed  quite  close. 

It  was  but  a  short  step  from  the  working  drawing  to  the 
actual  construction  of  the  model.  "  One  of  the  most  striking 
and  significant  results  of  the  experiment  begun  in  Boston  in 
1870  by  the  teaching  of  industrial  drawing  to  the  public  school 
children  of  that  city,  has  been  the  widespread  interest  awakened 
throughout  the  United  States  in  the  further  development  of 
industrial  training  of  children.  No  sooner  was  it  shown  that 
it  was  possible  to  give  to  the  children  in  the  public  schools 
some  elementary  training  of  the  hands  and  the  eyes,  than  a 
movement  began  in  many  places  to  teach  actual  trades  and 
handicrafts  to  the  children  while  in  school. "- 

The  following  quotations  are  typical  of  this  period  and  show 
the  relation  which  was  felt  to  exist  at  the  time  between  drawing 
and  manual  training: 

"  Drawing  gives  the  qualifications  of  a  good  mechanic  except 
the  practice.  ...  In  order  to  more  fully  carry  out  the  ideas 
involved  therein,  the  board  has  established  a  manual  training 
school  for  the  more  perfect  and  symmetrical  development  of 
the  hand  and  the  eye."" 

"  Instruction  in  drawing  and  the  introduction  of  object  teach- 
ing have  proved  of  the  greatest  advantage,  and  lead  directly 
and  naturally  to  those  subjects  and  methods  now  under  dis- 
cussion.    (Manual  training.)"* 

The  Commissioner's  report  for  1888  gives  a  table  showing 
the  status  of  manual  training  in  the  public  elementary  schools 
of  the  time.  This  fact  indicates  that  in  fully  eighty  per  cent 
of  the  cities  manual  training  was  introduced  after  drawing.' 

Some  school  reports  called  the  new  subject  "  realized  draw- 
ing."   Detailed  study  of  the  reports  of  the  period  indicate  very 

'Clark,  Art  and  Industry,  Part  I,  ix. 

'  Superintendent's  Report,  Newbury,  N.  Y..  1885.  Quoted  from  Com- 
missioner of  Education  Report,   1887,  783. 

*  Course  of  Study  of  Board  of  Education  of  New  York  City.  Quoted 
from  Commissioner  of  Education  Report,  1887,  783. 

» Ibid.,  1888,  875. 


34  Social  Factors  Affecting  Special  Supervision 

clearly  the  close  relation  which  existed  between  the  subject  of 
drawing  and  manual  training  in  the  mind  of  the  public. 

Effect  of  Centennial  Exhibition 

Attention  has  already  been  directed  to  the  stimulus  which 
was  given  the  cause  of  education  for  industrial  purposes  by 
the  expositions  of  1851,  1867,  and  1876.  The  industrial  leaders 
saw  in  the  introduction  of  industrial  art  a  means  of  adding  to 
the  creative  ability  of  the  great  mass  of  working  men.  They 
expected  to  provide  a  new  lever  to  be  used  in  the  ever-increasing 
struggle  for  industrial  supremacy.  In  Massachusetts  where 
their  struggles  were  felt  most  keenly,  this  end  was  to  be 
obtained  not  only  by  providing  additional  instruction  for  the 
children  in  the  schools,  but  by  the  additional  provision  for  the 
producing  population  in  the  form  of  free  evening  schools. 

The  Centennial  Exhibition  in  Philadelphia  in  1876  was  of  far- 
reaching  significance  not  only  in  the  widespread  interest  that 
was  created  in  drawing,  but  here  the  American  public  had  a 
chance  to  see  the  American  products  in  competition  with  those 
produced  in  foreign  countries.  Clarke  has  called  especial  atten- 
tion to  the  significance  of  the  Exhibition  relative  to  the  new 
interest  created  in  skillfully  made  products,  in  which  utility 
was  coupled  with  beauty.^  In  comparison  with  certain  foreign 
goods  ours  seemed  very  crude.  The  interests  which  had 
watched  the  progress  of  England  during  the  period  preceding 
were  given  an  additional  object  lesson  in  the  case  of  Russia 
and  Sweden.  "  The  Centennial  Exposition  in  Philadelphia  in 
1876  was  a  revelation  to  the  American  people,  not  only  of  the 
glory  of  the  graphic  and  plastic  arts,  as  shown  by  the  world's 
great  living  artists  and  sculptors  and  painters;  but,  also,  of  the 
variety  and  beauty  imparted  to  articles  of  usefulness  and  orna- 
ment by  the  wonderfully  artistic  weavers,  potters  and  metal- 
workers of  the  Orient,  and  by  the  skilled  art  workers  of 
Europe."^ 

In  addition  to  these  products  the  Russian  and  Swedish  exhibit 
of  educational  methods  involving  technical  and  manual  training 
attracted  much  attention  and  suggested  with  renewed  emphasis 

•Art  and  Industry,  Part  II,  LXXXVII-XCVII. 

'  Ibid.    Also  Mon.  14  in  Butler,  Education  in  U.  S.,  49. 


Manual  Training  35 

the  possibilities  of  educational  endeavors.  Educational  writers 
have  quite  generally  noted  the  spread  of  interest  in  manual 
training  following  the  Exposition.  Commissioner  Brown  says : 
"  The  European  manual  training  exhibits  at  the  Centennial 
Exhibition  in  Philadelphia  in  1876,  gave  a  strong  impetus  to  a 
movement,  already  under  discussion  and  even  tentatively  begun, 
toward  the  establishment  of  manual  training  schools  in  Amer- 
ican cities."^  Dexter  says  of  this  same  influence :  "At  the  same 
exhibition  (Centennial)  an  elaborate  display  of  models  illustrat- 
ing the  method  ('  Russian  '  tool  work)  was  made  by  the  Rus- 
sian school,  and  we  may  perhaps  date  the  real  beginning  of 
educational  manual  training  from  that  year."^ 

Beginnings  of  Technical  Education 

As  suggested  above  there  had  been  comparatively  little  done 
in  this  country  along  the  line  of  technical  education.  The  Rens- 
selaer Polytechnic  Institute  had  been  established  in  1824  at 
Troy  for  the  purpose  of  "  instructing  persons  who  may  choose 
to  apply  themselves  in  the  application  of  science  to  the  common 
purposes  of  life."^°  Little  advance  was  made  in  the  provision 
for  this  type  of  instruction  during  the  next  forty  years.^^ 

In  1862  Congress  passed  the  Morrill  Act,  which  made  pro- 
vision for  the  distribution  of  thirteen  millions  of  acres  of  land 
for  the  maintenance  of  a  college  in  each  state.  These  colleges 
were  to  be  chiefly  centers  of  instruction  in  the  agricultural  and 
mechanic  arts.  They  were  from  the  first  closel)^  affiliated  with 
the  manufacturing  and  agricultural  interests.  From  these  insti- 
tutions have  gone  out  a  steady  stream  of  men,  who  have  for 
the  most  part  taken  their  places  as  officers  in  the  great  indus- 
trial army.  Their  contribution  to  the  modem  industrial  develop- 
ment has  been  enormous.^- 

The  Worcester  Free  Institute  opened  its  doors  in  1868  with 
this  object:  "The  aim  of  this  school  shall  ever  be  the  instruc- 
tion of  the  youth  in  these  branches  of  education  not  usually 

*  Brown,  Making  of  Our  Middle  Schools,  401. 

•  Dexter,  History  of  Education  in  the  U.  S.,  409. 

"Extract  from  a  letter  quoted  in  Dexter,  History  of  Education  in  the 
United  States,  346. 

"  Ibid.,  344- 

"Brown.  Making  of  Our  Middle  Schools,  337.  Clarke,  Art  and  In- 
dustry, Part  in,  X,  XL 


36  Social  Factors  Affecting  Special  Supervision 

taught  in  the  public  schools,  which  are  essential  and  best  adapted 
to  train  the  young  for  practical  life."  This  school  was  quick 
to  respond  to  the  Russian  influence  and  served  to  make  popular 
the  cause  of  technical  education  from  this  standpoint. 

Secondary  Manual  Training  Schools  Supported  by  Economic 

Forces 

Through  the  influence  of  the  Centennial  Exhibition  and  the 
enthusiastic  leadership  of  C.  M.  Woodward,  a  small  group  of 
interested  men  provided  for  the  establishment  of  the  St.  Louis 
Manual  Training  School  in  1879.  This  school  was  of  secondary- 
grade,  the  purpose  of  which,  as  stated  by  Woodward,  included 
a  somewhat  broad  aim,  that  made  appeal  to  the  educational, 
social,  and  economic  sanction.^^ 

In  1884  Baltimore  opened  the  first  manual  training  school  in 
the  country  which  was  supported  and  controlled  by  the  public 
school  authorities.^*  The  argument  set  forth  in  the  resolution 
of  the  school  committee  preceding  this  establishment  was 
economic  and  social :  "  It  is  well  known  that  a  number  of  the 
boys  and  girls  leave  the  public  schools  of  Baltimore  without 
any  knowledge  of  the  mechanic  arts  or  other  industrial  pur- 
suits, and  find  themselves  at  once  in  the  front  of  the  realities 
of  life,  destitute  of  the  means  of  earning  a  livelihood ;  and  that 
it  is  known  that  such  boys  and  girls  are  unable  to  apply  the 
principles  taught  them  to  practical  advantage  in  life,  and  that 
in  order  to  fit  them  as  quickly  as  possible  for  self-support,  the 
subject  be  referred  to  a  committee  of  three  for  investigation 
and  report. "^^ 

A  similar  school  was  started  the  same  year  by  the  Com- 
mercial Club  of  Chicago.  The  year  following,  the  Cleveland 
manual  training  school  was  incorporated  by  a  group  of  busi- 
ness men.^^  These  schools  which  were  of  secondary  rank  were 
almost  wholly  established  through  private  initiative  operating 
under  an  economic  sanction.  They  served  as  models  and  with 
their  exhibits  and  popular  sanction  created  much  enthusiasm  for 

"  Woodward,  The  Manual  Training  School,  3-1 1.     Ham.,  Manual  Train- 
ing, 332-336. 
"Clark,  Art  and  Industry,  Part  I,  357. 
''Ibid.,  Part  II,  358. 
"  Ibid.,  Part  II,  438-448. 


Manual  Training  37 

the  movement.  The  public  school  authorities  soon  either  as- 
sumed the  responsibility  for  the  maintenance  of  these  schools, 
as  in  the  case  of  Cleveland  and  Toledo,  or  established  parallel 
courses  as  in  the  case  of  Chicago.^^  Within  a  short  time  manual 
training  high  schools  were  established  in  a  number  of  the  larger 
cities.^* 

Humanitarian  Activities 

Not  only  did  the  economic  factors  accumulate  which  would 
provide  a  background  for  a  popular  response  with  the  intro- 
duction of  manual  training,  but  other  forces  of  a  different 
nature  were  at  work.  The  humanitarian  or  philanthropic  move- 
ments which  were  instrumental  in  the  organization  and  main- 
tenance of  the  public  school  societies  of  the  early  part  of  the 
century,  were  still  at  work.  This  brought  together  groups  of 
people  who  were  primarily  interested  in  the  actual  alleviation 
of  the  distress  which  had  become  so  apparent  under  the  new 
social  order.  The  problem  of  life  in  the  city  for  the  poorer 
classes  made  a  constant  appeal  to  these  people.  This  problem 
appeared  not  only  to  involve  conditions  that  threatened 
the  very  institutional  life  of  the  country  through  the 
herding  together  of  masses  of  unskilled  laborers  but 
the  attendant  penury  and  suffering  in  the  families  con- 
cerned also  made  a  vital  appeal.  Manual  labor  was  one  of 
the  features  of  the  Fellenburg  movement  which  spread  rapidly 
in  this  country  from  1825  to  1840.  The  promoters  of  these 
schools  hoped  to  make  them  in  a  measure  self-supporting  by 
having  the  students  do  a  regular  amount  of  manual  labor  in 
connection  with  the  school  plant.  The  plan  was  not  unlike 
the  one  in  operation  to-day  at  Tuskegee.  The  manual  side  of 
the  movement  was  not  altogether  successful  and  soon  dropped 
out  of  these  schools  except  in  the  case  of  schools  for  dependents. 
Nevertheless,  their  success  both  in  this  country  and  in  Europe 
served  as  a  model  for  continuous  imitation.^^ 

These  schools  were  better  adapted  to  the  protective  than  to 
the  educative  types  of  instruction.  Most  of  the  charity  schools 
developed  during  the  period  and  since  that  time  have  been  of 


"  Ibid.,  Part  II,  669-678. 

"Ibid.,  191,  405-428. 

"Monroe,  Text-book  in  the  History  of  Education,  723-724. 


38  Social  Factors  Affecting  Special  Supervision 

this  type.  The  Children's  Aid  Society,  which  successfully  oper- 
ates similar  schools  even  at  the  present  time,  established  an 
industrial  school  as  early  as  1825.  The  humanitarian  spirit  was 
manifest  in  the  establishment  of  such  schools  in  all  parts  of 
the  country. 

Practical  Nature  of  Instruction  in  Charity  Schools 

Unlike  the  children  in  the  public  schools,  these  children  came 
from  homes  of  about  the  same  social  and  economic  levels.  The 
immediate  as  well  as  the  future  needs  of  these  children  stood 
out  much  more  definitely  than  in  the  case  of  the  public  school 
children  where  home  conditions  and  future  occupations  range 
through  the  whole  field.  Thus  the  very  nature  and  purpose 
of  these  mission  schools  favored  variations  from  type  in  method 
and  in  subject  matter.  Hence  it  is  not  surprising  that  these 
schools  were  the  scenes  of  early  modification  toward  the  ultra- 
practical  in  education. 

Kitchen  Garden  Movement 

As  a  center  from  which  radiated  influences  which  wrought 
great  changes  in  school  practice,  the  Wilson  Industrial  School 
for  girls  is  an  excellent  example.  This  mission  school  was 
established  in  1854  in  New  York  City.^**  From  the  first  the 
work  was  successful.  In  1876  Miss  Emily  Huntington  started 
a  movement  in  this  school  known  as  the  Kitchen  Garden  Move- 
ment. This  involved  a  form  of  industrial  training  for  girls 
which  became  popular  in  all  parts  of  the  country.  Kitchen 
Garden  schools  were  established  and  a  Kitchen  Garden  journal 
was  published. 

Industrial  Education  Association 

The  movement  had  attained  such  proportions  that  by  1884 
the  members  of  the  Kitchen  Garden  Association  of  New  York 
felt  the  necessity  for  reorganization  on  broader  terms.  The 
famed  Industrial  Education  Association  of  New  York  was  the 
outcome.  Its  purpose  and  plan  can  best  be  ascertained  from 
their  own  statement: 


Clark,  Art  and  Industry,  Part  II,  305-306. 


Manual  I' raining  39 

First.  To  obtain  and  disseminate  information  upon  industrial 
education  and  to  stimulate  public  opinion  in  its  favor. 

Second.  To  invite  co-operation  between  existing  organizations 
engaged  in  any  form  of  industrial  training. 

Third.  To  train  women  and  girls  in  domestic  economy  and 
to  promote  the  training  of  both  sexes,  in  such  industries  as 
shall  enable  those  trained  to  become  self-supporting. 

Fourth.  To  study  the  methods  and  systems  of  industrial  train- 
ing and  secure  their  introduction  into  schools ;  also  when  ex- 
pedient to  form  special  classes  and  schools  for  such  instruction. 

Fifth.  To  provide  instructors  for  schools  and  classes  and  if 
necessary  to  train  teachers  for  the  work."^ 

This  was  certainly  an  ambitious  and  comprehensive  program,, 
more  especially  when  considered  in  the  light  of  the  fact  that 
the  movement  traced  its  origin  to  the  mission  school.  The 
results  were  phenomenal.  All  of  the  recognized  channels  for 
spreading  the  influence  were  utilized.  The  organization  gained 
the  prestige  which  goes  with  a  distinguished  list  of  members 
and  officers.  The  press  was  utilized  to  the  maximum  for  pub- 
licity. Scholarly  articles  appeared  in  magazines  and  exhibitions 
were  held  of  products  from  the  various  schools  in  the  country, 
to  which  excursions  were  run  for  the  purpose  of  interesting  the 
outside  school  superintendents. 

Pressure  for  Manual  Training  in  New  York  City  Schools 

Concerning  the  attempts  to  get  the  subject  introduced  into 
the  schools  of  New  York  City  the  following  is  indicative: 
"  Mature  deliberation  convinced  the  committee  that  the  best  way 
to  secure  the  desired  result  would  be  to  establish  centers  where 
by  practical  experiment  the  value  and  feasibility  of  manual 
training  could  be  demonstrated.  Recognizing  the  power  that  would 
accrue  from  such  a  movement  by  attempting  it  at  ojtce  with 
the  public  schools  of  New  York  City,  application  was  made  to 
the  Board  of  Education  for  the  use  of  a  school  building  one 
afternoon  of  each  week  for  the  purpose  of  holding  classes, 
after  the  regular  school  hours,  in  sewing,  domestic  economy, 
designing,  modelling,  simple  carpentry,  and  the  use  of  tools ; 
the   Association   to   assume   entire   care   and   expense   and   the 


"First  Annual  Report  of  the  Industrial  Education  Association,  April, 
1885,  31. 


40  Social  Factors  Affecting  Special  Supervision 

classes  to  be  open  at  all  times  to  the  inspection  of  teachers 
and  instructors  of  the  public  schools  and  members  of  the  Board 
of  Education.  The  petition  was  signed  by  prominent  citizens, 
representing  a  variety  of  influential  interests  and  a  strong  public 
sentiment  in  favor  of  the  introduction  of  manual  training."-^ 
Not  only  did  this  enthusiastic  group  of  leaders  realize  the 
value  which  would  accrue  from  having  such  a  powerful  example 
for  imitation  as  New  York,  but  they  knew  how  to  organize 
their  forces  in  such  a  way  that  the  appeal  would  be  most 
powerful   before  the  school   authorities   of  this   city. 

Introduction  in  New   York  Schools 

Although  the  response  was  not  immediate,  it  is  not  surpris- 
ing to  find  that  in  1887  the  committee  on  the  course  of  study 
recommended  that  the  subject  be  introduced  into  the  schools. 
"  Your  committee  during  the  deliberation  have  adopted  the  fol- 
lowing resolutions: 

Resolved,  That  the  kind  of  instruction  known  as  manual  train- 
ing should  be  introduced  into  the  primary  and  grammar  schools." 

This  was  accompanied  by  a  long  series  of  resolutions  setting 
forth  in  detail  the  plans  to  be  pursued  in  connection  with  in- 
struction and  administration  of  the  work.  Two  of  these  are 
of  interest  in  connection  with  this  study. 

"Resolved,  That  the  instruction  in  workshop,  cooking  and  sew- 
ing, should  be  under  the  direction  of  special  teachers,  who 
should  be  licensed,  employed  and  paid  in  the  manner  now  pro- 
vided for  special  teachers. 

Resolved,  That  to  secure  efficient  instruction  an  additional 
assistant  superintendent  should  be  appointed,  whose  special  duty 
should  be  to  supervise,  under  the  city  superintendent,  all  the 
work  in  manual  training  in  the  Primary  and  Grammar  Schools."^' 

Thus  within  a  period  of  a  little  more  than  two  years  after 
the  organization  of  this  Industrial  Association,  the  introduc- 
tion had  been  accomplished  in  the  metropolis  of  the  country. 
The  student  of  educational  sociology  finds  in  this  one  of  the 
most  striking  instances  of  the  registration  of  outside  opinion 
upon  the  curriculum  of  the  schools. 

"  First    Annual    Report,    Industrial    Education    Association,    1885,    Sub- 
committee on  Industries. 
"  Quoted  in  appendix  to  Art  and  Industry,  1208. 


Manual  Training  41 

Training  School  for  Teachers 

The  work  of  the  Industrial  Education  Association  soon  de- 
manded a  new  hne  of  activity.  With  the  enthusiasm  which  was 
created  calls  came  for  teachers.  The  following  is  taken  from 
the  Third  Annual  Report  for  the  year  ending  March  31,  1887: 

"  During-  the  Winter  it  became  apparent  that  while  the  Asso- 
ciation was  meeting  with  no  small  success  in  its  efforts  to 
spread  abroad  the  principles  which  it  advocated,  it  was  at  the 
same  time  creating  a  demand  for  trained  teachers,  to  meet 
which  there  was  an  inadequate  supply.  The  question  arose 
where  and  by  whom  were  these  teachers  to  be  trained.  Mani- 
festly this  training  should  and  must  be  done  by  the  Association. 
.  .  .  It  became  evident  that  such  a  scheme  must  assume  the 
proportions  of  a  training  college,  needing  the  guidance  of  a 
trained  and  expert  educator.  A  president  must  be  found,  and 
a  search  was  at  once  begun  for  the  right  man  for  the  place, 
and  this  man  the  Board  of  Trustees  believe  it  has  found  in  the 
person  of  Dr.  Nicholas  Murray  Butler,  the  President-Elect."^* 

Thus  were  the  preliminary  steps  taken  in  the  organization  of 
a  school  which  later  became  Teachers  College,  Columbia 
University. 

Spread  of  Influence 

Such  zeal  coupled  with  skillful  organization  and  communi- 
cation of  purpose  was  sure  of  its  reward.  The  enthusiasm  was 
contagious  and  the  general  plan  of  organization  served  as  a 
splendid  example.  Largely  through  the  influence  of  the  New 
York  Industrial  Association,  an  Industrial  Education  Associa- 
tion was  formed  in  New  Jersey  with  the  governor  of  the  State 
as  the  presiding  officer.-^  The  Industrial  Association  of  Bal- 
timore^* was  organized  in  1887  with  an  imposing  list  of  mem- 
bers. Similar  associations  were  developed  in  many  of  the  urban 
centers  within  a  short  time.  Many  of  the  associations  which 
had  been  founded  a  little  earlier  for  the  purpose  of  agitation 
in  favor  of  kindergartens,  now  turned  their  attention  to  the 
new  movement.^^ 


'*Ibid.,  Part  II,  295. 
'^Ibid.,  307-309- 
"Ibid.,  316. 
"  Ibid.,  317. 


42  Social  Factors  Affecting  Special  Supervision 

Private  Initiative  in  Boston 

The  movement  in  Boston  traces  its  beginning  to  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  "  Whitthng  School  "  in  1871.  This  school, 
which  was  organized  by  a  few  private  citizens,  attempted  to 
acquaint  a  group  of  boys  with  the  use  of  wood-cutting  tools. 
The  school  was  operated  for  five  seasons  in  the  chapel  of  a 
church,  at  the  end  of  which  time  it  was  merged  with  another 
industrial  school  which  had  been  similarly  formed  a  little  later. 
With  the  merging  of  these  two  schools  the  Industrial  Educa- 
tion Society  was  formed  to  take  charge  of  the  two  schools. 
Sufficient  backing  was  then  secured  to  get  the  city  to  grant  the 
use  of  a  school  room  for  the  work.  A  definite  course  of  study 
was  prepared  and  the  work  prospered.-^ 

Boston  School  Committee  Assumes  Responsibility 

As  in  the  case  of  the  New  York  association  the  attempt  was 
soon  made  to  get  the  school  to  assume  the  responsibility  for  the 
work.  Concerning  these  attempts,  Superintendent  Seaver  of  the 
Boston  Schools  says : 

"  This  Industrial  School  Association  having  for  several  seasons 
successfully  conducted  schools  for  instruction  in  the  use  of 
wood  working  tools,  and  having  prepared  a  manual  of  proved 
educational  value,  ottered  to  the  Board  the  use  of  the  apparatus 
and  petitioned  that  the  master  of  the  Dwight  and  Sherwin 
schools  be  permitted  to  employ  these  for  the  benefit  of  such 
of  these  pupils  as  would  in  their  judgment  be  best  fitted  for 
such  instruction  or  most  deserving  of  it.  The  association 
offered  to  defray  all  expenses  of  the  cost  of  tuition  for  the 
year.     This  generous  offer  was  accepted  by  the  Board."^^ 

Forces  Outside  of  School  Back  of  Manual  Training  Movement 

Thus  did  the  economic  and  humanitarian  forces  join  hands 
in  the  development  of  the  propaganda.  Manual  training  for 
the  secondary  schools  was  perhaps  more  directly  the  outcome 
of  economic  forces,  while  the  agitation  in  favor  of  manual 
training  for  the  elementary  schools  was  materially  helped  by 
the  humanitarian  forces.  It  is  to  be  borne  in  mind  that  this 
activity  was  for  the  most  part  confined  to  agencies  outside  of 
the  school  group. 

ybid.,  13-15. 

"'  Report  of  Boston  School  Committee,  1882,  16. 


Manual  Training  43 

"In  most  places  where  the  manual  training  experiment  is  being 
tried  in  this  country,  it  is  through  the  philanthropy  and  gener- 
osity of  private  individuals.  Even  where  it  is  closely  connected 
with  public  school  systems  in  several  cities,  this  has  been 
brought  about  largely  by  private  gifts.  It  has  come  to  certain 
schools  and  cities  as  the  kindergarten  system  has  come;  in 
some  places,  first  through  enthusiasm  and  munificence  of  private 
individuals,  and  then,  after  proving  its  claim  upon  all  interests, 
it  has  been  gladly  adopted  by  boards  of  education  and  supported 
from  public  funds.  Manual  training  can  be  thus  introduced 
wherever  even  a  few  have  an  appreciation  of  its  benefits  and 
can  enlist  private  capital  in  its  behalf.  In  introducing  it  in  this 
way,  what  is  needed  is  energy,  enthusiasm,  conviction,  fanati- 
cism, if  you  will,  and  money.  .  .  .  When  manual  training  is 
to  be  inaugurated  through  the  majority  of  the  people  by  taxa- 
tion of  themselves,  the  case  is  somewhat  different.  .  .  . 
This,  then,  is  the  first  thing  to  look  to — ^the  preparation  of  the 
public  mind."^" 

Opposition  of  Teachers 

The  following  additional  quotation  from  Superintendent  H.  W. 
Compton  of  Toledo  is  significant  of  the  attitude  of  the  teacher 
toward  the  whole  movement.  The  fact  that  Mr.  Compton  had 
been  closely  associated  with  the  movement  both  in  the  introduc- 
tion in  his  own  city  and  in  the  general  agitation  gives  increased 
value  to  his  testimony.  "  The  worst  foes  of  industrial  educa- 
tion are  those  who  ought  to  be  its  best  friends,  and  they  are 
among  the  teaching  force  of  the  country.  .  .  .  They  would 
like  to  remain  monarchs  of  all  they  supervise,  and  manual  work 
seems  like  an  encroachment  upon  their  absolutism  and  self- 
sufficiency."^^ 

The  most  severe  criticism  was  made  on  the  movement  by 
some  of  the  school  men.  The  following  from  Superintendent 
Marble  suggests  the  point  of  attack :  "  The  demand  for  manual 
training  does  not  come  from  the  people  for  whose  children  the 
training  is  designed ;  it  comes  chiefly  from  a  class  of  self-con- 
stituted philanthropists  who  are  intent  upon  providing  the 
'  masses '  with  an  education  which  shall  fit  them  for  their 
sphere."^^ 


*"  Compton,  Circular  of  Information,  United  States  Bureau  of  Educa- 
tion, 1889,  number  2,  174. 
*'Ibid.,  175- 
''  Quoted  in  Art  and  Industry,  Part  II,  917. 


44  Social  Factors  Affecting  Special  Supervision 

The  means  utilized  to  attract  attention  was  also  criticized  by 
Marble.  "  The  apparent  call  for  such  training  is  created  by 
a  few  voices  echoing  and  re-echoing  the  refrain  and  magni- 
fying the  few  experiments  that  are  being  tried  into  a  general 
educational  movement.  Magazine  writers  and  newspaper  para- 
graphers  reiterate  the  same  old  strains  in  praise  of  the  little 
shop  at  Gloucester,  the  Boston  basements  and  the  Toledo  move- 
ment just  as  if  they  were  general  and  representative."^^ 

Relation  of  Kindergarten  Movement  to  Manual   Training 

However,  certain  forces  were  operative  within  the  school  group 
which  did  provide  a  favorable  background  for  the  introduction 
of  manual  training. 

The  spread  of  the  kindergarten  movement  contributed  much 
in  the  matter  of  the  teacher's  attitude  toward  the  new  subject. 
The  philosophy  of  Froebel  which  became  prevalent  with  the 
introduction  of  the  kindergarten  furnished  a  basis  for  the  intro- 
duction of  manual  training  which  made  a  fine  appeal  to  the 
educator  who  had  become  familiar  with  this  doctrine.  The 
doctrine  of  self-activity  gave  a  new  dignity  to  all  forms  of 
expression.  In  his  Educational  Laws,  Froebel  said:  "At  the 
present  time  Art  alone  can  be  truly  called  free  activity,  but 
every  human  work  corresponds  more  or  less  with  creative 
activity,  and  this  is  necessary  in  order  to  make  man  the  image 
of  his  Divine  Creator — a  creator  on  his  own  part  in 
miniature."^* 

As  early  as  1878  C.  M.  Woodward  in  his  famous  St.  Louis 
address  said :  "  The  manual  training  education  which  begins  in 
the  kindergarten  before  the  children  are  able  to  read  a  word, 
should  never  cease. "^^ 

Attitude  of  Felix  Adler 

One  of  the  clearest  examples  of  this  intimate  relation  between 
the  kindergarten  and  manual  training  is  in  connection  with  the 
"  Workingmen's  School "  which  was  opened  in  1880  by  the 
Ethical  Culture  Society  of  New  York.  The  first  pamphlet 
issued  in  1881  contains  this  statement: 


''  Report  of  Schools,  Worcester,  Massachusetts,  1885. 
Froebel,  Laws. 
'Woodward,  Manual  Training  School,  286. 


Manual  Training  45 

"  The  Workingman's  School  and  the  Free  Kindergarten  form 
one  institution.  The  children  are  admitted  at  the  age  of  three 
to  the  Kindergarten.  They  are  graduated  from  it  at  six  and 
enter  the  Workingman's  School.  They  remain  in  the  school  till 
they  are  thirteen  or  fourteen  years  of  age.  Thereafter  those 
who  show  decided  ability  receive  higher  technical  instruction."^* 

Felix  Adler,  the  director,  thus  outlined  his  method  in  his 
widely  quoted  address  given  before  the  Ethical  Culture  Society, 
New  York  City,  October  24,   1880: 

"  We  lend  moreover  an  entirely  new  import  to  the  method  of 
industrial  education  in  the  school.  We  are  seeking  to  apply 
the  principles  which  ought  to  be  at  the  foundation  of  every 
modern  scheme  of  education :  namely,  that,  as  experiment  con- 
joined with  observation  is  necessary  to  the  discovery  of  truth, 
so  object  creating  must  supplement  object  teaching  in  that  re- 
discovery of  truths  which  it  is  the  purpose  of  all  education  to 
facilitate."" 

Of  his  creative  method  he  says : 

"At  present  still  another  step  must  be  taken,  viz.,  from  the 
mere  observation  to  the  production  of  things  as  a  means  of 
acquiring  knowledge ;  and  the  taking  of  this  step  will  mark 
another  epoch  in  pedagogy.  Froebel  began  to  apply  the  prin- 
ciple of  the  creative  method  in  his  kindergarten.  But  the  kin- 
dergarten system  covers  only  three  years  of  the  child's  life 
while  for  the  school  age  proper  no  valuable  and  tangible  formu- 
lation of  the  creative  principle  has  yet  been  given.  Here  the 
work  remains  to  be  done  and  the  experiment  of  which  this 
article  speaks  is  an  attempt  to  do  it."^® 

Attitude  of  Nicholas  Murray  Butler 
As  further  evidence  of  the  close  relation  which  existed  be- 
tween the  kindergarten  movement  and  the  reception  of  manual 
training,  the  words  of  President  Nicholas  Murray  Butler  are 
especially  valuable.  "  Froebel  in  his  kindergarten  reduced  theory 
to  practice  and  in  the  kindergarten  all  manual  training  as  well 
as  all  rational  and  systematic  education  has  its  basis.  But 
Froebel's  work  did  not  include  the  development  of  a  scheme 
of  manual  training  for  older  pupils.  The  next  step  was  to 
recognize  the  unity  of   principle   which   underlay   the   kinder- 


*°  Quoted  in  Art  and  Industry,  Part  II.  464. 

"  Quoted  in  Clark,  Art  and  Industry,  Part  II,  478. 

*^  Princeton  Review,  March,  1883. 


46  Social  Factors  Affecting  Special  Supervision 

garten  at  one  end  of  the  educational  scheme  and  the  manual 
training  school  at  the  other;  it  was  observed  that  both  recog- 
nized the  activities  and  the  expressive  powers  as  well  as  the 
receptivities  and  assimilative  powers.  It  was  seen  that  the 
kindergarten  and  the  manual  training  school  were  evidences  of 
one  and  the  same  movement,  though  appearing  at  different 
points  on  the  line."^^ 

Commentary  of  United  States  Commissioner  of  Education 

Commissioner  Dawson,  of  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Edu- 
cation, in  commenting  on  this  relation  said :  "  It  appears  to  us 
doubtful  whether  manual  training  owes  more  to  the  kinder- 
garten for  theory,  or  the  kindergarten  to  manual  training  for 
success.  In  brief,  a  series  of  arguments  might  be  instituted: 
What  is  manual  training  as  a  theory  of  education  without  the 
theory  of  Froebel?  Would  the  kindergarten  have  progressed 
so  fast  of  late  had  it  not  been  brought  into  notice  by  its  '  occu- 
pations '  being  adopted  by  manual  training ;  and  last  but  not 
least,  had  manual  training  been  generally  understood  to  mean 
education  and  not  industrial  training  would  it  have  met  with 
such  great  success  ?  "*" 

In  the  light  of  the  foregoing  testimony  it  seems  safe  to  draw 
the  conclusion  that  manual  training  was  modified  directly 
through  the  influence  of  the  prevailing  kindergarten  theory. 

Manual  Training  Interpreted  in  the  Light  of  the  Intellectual 
Tradition  of  the  School 

Another  factor  which  tended  to  influence  the  attitude  of  the 
schoolmaster  toward  manual  training  was  the  prevailing  psycho- 
logical belief  in  formal  discipline.  This  doctrine  fitted  admir- 
ably into  the  propaganda  for  a  trained  hand,  eye  and  brain, 
and  did  much  to  provide  a  popular  sanction  for  the  new  subject 
within  the  school.  By  placing  a  purely  intellectual  value  on 
this  work,  instruction  in  it  might  be  provided  without  conflict 
with  the  intellectual  traditions  of  the  school. 


i02d  Annual  Report,  Regents  of  New  York  University,  17-29. 
Commissioner's  Report,  1888,  820. 


Manual  Training  47 

Attitude  of  Charles  W.  Eliot  and  Others 

The  following  quotations  are  suggestive  of  this  influence. 
President  Eliot  in  an  address  before  a  manual  training  confer- 
ence held  in  Boston  in  1891  said : 

"  Never  admit  that  manual  training  is  anything  distinguished 
from  or  in  opposition  to  mental  training.  In  the  skill  of  the 
artist's  hand,  in  the  mechanical,  accurate  movements  of  the 
mechanic's  arm,  in  the  acute  observation  through  the  physician's 
eye  or  ear,  there  is  always  mind.  Therefore  there  is  no  oppo- 
sition between  manual  training  on  the  one  hand  and  mental 
training  on  the  other.  We  are  simply  training  another  kind 
of  faculty — not  memory,  but  discrimination,  observation  and 
correct  perception. "^^ 

C.  R.  Richards  said  before  the  same  conference: 
"  The  fitness  of  every  exercise  (in  manual  training)  must  be 
judged  by  the  degree  in  which  it  advances  disciplinary  or  in- 
tellectual ends,  and  by  no  other  standard."*- 

Daniel  Jones,  master  of  the  Lowell  School  of  Boston,  gave 
utterance  to  the  following,  which  shows  this  same  determina- 
tion to  admit  the  work  only  in  its  intellectual  demand: 

"  We  welcome  this  manual  training  just  so  far  as  it  is  an 
educational  power  and  no  further.  Nothing  is  to  be  crowded 
out  of  the  regular  school  work  to  give  it  a  place.  We  want 
no  more  of  it  than  will  awaken  the  mind  and  thereby  aid  in 
developing  the  intellectual  process."''^ 

In  summarizing  the  work  of  this  conference  Mr.  Ames  said: 

"  It  is  not  possible,  I  think,  that  we  should  get  the  best  results 
out  of  manual  training  unless  we  continually  hold  manual  train- 
ing as  one  contribution  to  human  advancement,  regarding  it 
purely  according  to  its  educative  value.  This  has  been  the  key- 
note of  the  conference — a  note  which  needs  to  be  heard  far 
and  wide  and  which  belongs  to  each  of  us  to  take  up  and  try 
to  propagate.  Manual  training  is  not  simply  a  provision  by 
which  the  children  of  the  poor  shall  be  put  in  the  way  of 
making  a  living  and  be  serviceable  to  the  community."** 

Here  is  the  determination  expressed  to  ignore  even  the  hu- 
manitarian value  of  the  subject,  in  favor  of  the  purely  educa- 


"  Conference  on   Manual   Training,  edited  by  I.   C.   Barrows,   Boston, 
1891,  13- 
"Ibid.,  104. 
"Ibid.,  114. 
"Ibid.,  137- 


48  Social  Factors  Affecting  Special  Supervision 

tional  value.  Another  view  which  is  quite  similar  is  that  which 
follows,  taken  from  one  of  the  tracts  of  the  New  York  Indus- 
trial Education  Association :  "  Many  persons  lay  great  stress 
on  the  economic  and  social  benefits  .  .  .  thus  confuse  the 
argument  for  manual  training  in  the  schools.  .  .  .  The  argu- 
ment for  manual  training  in  the  common  schools  is  psycholog- 
ical and  educational.     It  is  not  economic  or  utilitarian."*^ 

Refraction  of  Pressure  Resulting  from  Influence  of  Schools 

In  consideration  of  the  fact  that  various  forces  were  back 
of  this  movement  which  represented  fundamentally  different 
ideas,  interest  attaches  to  the  refraction  which  occurred  in 
the  work  after  it  came  into  the  control  of  the  school  group. 
The  following  quotation  from  Professor  W.  S.  Chaplin,  who 
vi^as  intimately  associated  with  the  manual  training  movement 
in  Cambridge,  Massachusetts,  reveals  this  difference  in  concep- 
tion :  "  The  school  in  Cambridge  started  under  certain  dis- 
advantages. .  .  .  The  fact  was  the  people  did  not  under- 
stand what  the  manual  training  school  was.  They  had  an  idea 
that  it  was  to  be  a  trade  school,  and  I  am  not  sure  but  some 
of  the  managing  committee  thought  it  was  too.  But  the  school 
has  passed  out  of  that  condition,  and  it  is  a  manual  training 
school  not  aiming  to  make  tradesmen,  but  to  educate  through 
manual  training."*® 

Thus  it  is  seen  that  the  intellectual  idea  dominated  in  the 
school  when  it  passed  into  the  hands  of  the  schoolmaster.  An- 
other significant  illustration  of  this  refraction  is  in  connection 
with  the  New  York  Industrial  Education  Association,  which  was 
clearly  modified  through  the  influence  of  the  educator.  Con- 
cerning this  change,  Dr.  Nicholas  Murray  Butler,  the  President 
of  the  Association,  said  in  his  report  to  the  Board  of  Trustees 
under  date  of  May  4,  1888:  *'  It  is  interesting  to  note  that  an 
organization  founded  as  a  philanthropic  enterprise  has  become  a 
great  educational  force,  and  has  changed  its  platform  of  hu- 
manitarianism  for  one  of  purely  educational  reform  and  ad- 
vancement."*'^ 


*°  Educational  Leaflets,  No.  i,  Nov.,  1887,  Industrial  Education  Asso- 
ciation, New  York. 

"  Conference  on  Manual  Training,  edited  by  I.  C.  Barrows,  Boston, 
1891.  lOI. 

"  Quoted  in  Arts  and  Industry,  Part  II,  300. 


Manual  Training  49 

The  evidence  thus  points  to  the  conclusion  that  the  pressure 
generated  by  economic  and  humanitarian  forces  was  clearly 
modified  to  conform  to  the  intellectual  ideals  of  the  schoolroom. 
The  economic  forces  worked  from  the  higher  schools  down- 
ward; the  humanitarian  forces  worked  from  the  lower  schools 
upward;  the  educational  forces  provided  a  background  for  a 
favorable  reception  for  the  whole  range  of  school  life  but 
demanded  that  the  end  set  up  should  be  in  conformity  with  the 
traditions  of  the  schoolroom.  The  fact  that  these  forces  were 
bound  up  in  this  movement  gave  the  subject  a  three-fold  hear- 
ing. It  was  possible  to  make  an  appeal  on  the  basis  of  an 
economic,  humanitarian,  or  educational  sanction.  As  a  result 
the  spread  of  the  subject  has  been  very  rapid  since  1889-1890.** 

A  dministration 

Special  teachers  or  supervisors  have  been  almost  exclusively 
in  charge  of  this  work  in  the  various  city  systems.  In  the  high 
school  these  teachers  have  borne  the  same  relation  to  the  schools 
as  that  of  any  departmental  teacher.  In  the  elementary  grades 
the  custom  has  been  to  set  off  a  stated  number  of  periods  per 
month  for  this  work.  Special  instructors  have  either  worked 
in  a  "  central  "  shop,  or  have  gone  from  building  to  building 
to  give  this  instruction.^^  Thus  the  regular  teacher  has  not 
been  required  to  assume  the  responsibility  for  instruction  in 
this  subject,  except  in  rare  cases. 

Summary 

With  the  change  in  social  and  economic  conditions  industrial 
forces  became  interested  in  improving  the  productivity  of  the 
artisan. 

The  industrial  art  drawing  which  had  already  received  con- 
sideration seemed  to  lead  logically  to  work  in  manual  training. 

The  Centennial  Exhibition  served  to  direct  attention  to  foreign 
skill  and  the  educational  means  used  in  its  development. 

Technical  education  which  was  directed  by  economic  forces 
extended  downward  into  the  high  schools.     The  humanitarian 


"  See  Commissioner  of  Education  Report,  1889  et  seq. 
"  See  Chapter  XL 


50  Social  Factors  Affecting  Special  Supervision 

forces  directed  their  attention  to  education  in  the  lower  schools 
in  favor  of  a  more  practical  type  of  instruction. 

Outside  organizations,  largely  humanitarian  in  nature,  sprang 
up  in  New  York,  Boston,  New  Jersey,  and  elsewhere,  bringing 
such  pressure  to  bear  on  the  public  schools  in  favor  of  manual 
training  that  widespread  introduction  followed. 

The  "  creative "  activity  and  the  philosophy  underlying  the 
kindergarten,  provided  a  favorable  background  for  manual 
training,  considered  as  a  purely  "  educative  "  means.  The  pre- 
vailing psychological  belief  and  the  traditions  of  the  school 
resulted  in  the  refraction  of  the  movement.  There  developed  a 
tendency  to  interpret  manual  training  in  the  light  of  intellectual 
rather  than  humanitarian  or  economic  values. 

The  practice  of  employing  special  teachers  or  supervisors  of 
this  subject  has  been  almost  universally  adopted. 


CHAPTER  V 
DOMESTIC  SCIENCE 

Decline  of  Home  Industries 

A  study  of  the  pressure  back  of  the  introduction  of  sewing 
and  cooking  into  the  public  school  curriculum  directs  attention 
to  the  changes  in  the  economic  and  social  life  of  the  nineteenth 
century.  The  growth  of  purely  industrial  activities  and  the 
general  rise  of  manufacturing,  brought,  as  we  have  seen  in  an 
earlier  section,  a  complete  revolution  in  the  lives  of  the  working 
men.  Specialization  took  place  to  an  extent  undreamed  of  in 
the  earlier  days  of  home  industry.  The  division  of  labor  which 
was  made  possible  with  urbanization  soon  made  itself  felt  in 
the  lives  of  the  women  also. 

This  operated  in  two  ways.  On  the  outside  new  oppor- 
tunities were  provided  that  made  it  possible  for  a  woman  to 
earn  a  wage  at  other  than  domestic  work.  On  the  inside  the 
changes  in  the  household  economy  released  thousands  of  girls 
from  the  necessities  of  home  duties.  A  moment's  retrospect 
covering  the  work  of  our  grandmothers  reveals  the  great  num- 
ber of  household  duties  that  have  dropped  out  entirely  in  urban 
centers  and  have  almost  disappeared  among  rural  groups.  These 
duties  included  carding,  spinning,  weaving  for  wearing  apparel, 
floor  covering,  draperies,  linens.  Preparation  of  food,  in  the 
old  days,  also  involved  everlasting  labor  of  the  most  exacting 
nature.  Modern  civilization  has  worked  a  tremendous  change. 
Factory  products  have  invaded  the  home,  with  clothing,  cover- 
ings, draperies,  prepared  food  and  wonderful  time  and  labor 
saving  devices.  With  this  change  there  has  come  the  release 
of  girls  and  women  from  the  home  duties.  With  the  rise  of 
ready-made  garments  home  needlework  declined.  Although 
women  were  still  in  a  large  measure  the  ones  who  worked  on 
these  garments,  the  work  was  carried  on  outside  the  home  and 
was  done  in  connection  with  power  machinery  accompanied  by 

51 


52  Social  Factors  Affecting  Special  Supervision 

great  specialization.  Under  the  new  regime  raw  materials  were 
no  longer  taken  into  the  home.  The  finished  products  were 
attainable  indirectly  through  purchase,  which  necessitated  money. 
\Vith  this  change  new  economic  pressures  developed  which 
forced  women  to  transfer  their  scene  of  activity  and  to  become 
wage  earners.^ 

New  Opportunities  for  Women  outside  the  Home 
On  the  outside  a  multitude  of  openings  developed  which  made 
it  possible  for  a  woman  to  earn  the  wage.  The  specialization 
of  the  factory  provided  thousands  of  places  for  women.  The 
development  of  the  public  school  system  opened  up  new  avenues 
of  activity  which  made  an  especial  appeal  to  the  women  who 
were  inclined  toward  scholarly  pursuits.  Modern  trade  condi- 
tions have  provided  a  vast  number  of  positions  for  girls  and 
women  in  shops  and  offices.  Thus  economic  conditions  have 
brought  about  conditions  that  have  opened  up  fields  for  women 
covering  a  wide  range  of  activities.  Necessity  born  of  changed 
social  and  economic  pressures  has  been  met  on  the  outside  with 
such  a  variety  of  openings  that  woman  has  quickly  made  herself 
a  permanent  part  of  the  wage-earning  class. 

Early  Attempts  to  Meet  This  Situation 
This  readjustment  has  been  accompanied  by  much  distress 
and  many  misgivings  have  been  entertained  as  to  the  ultimate 
social  effect  of  the  change.  The  decline  in  knowledge  of  the 
old  fashioned  domestic  virtue  of  sewing  has  been  more  or  less 
seriously  resisted  for  a  long  time  by  persons  who  were  inter- 
ested in  social  welfare.  At  a  later  date  this  concern  included 
cooking,  while  to-day  it  covers  the  whole  field  of  domestic 
economy  and  the  household  arts. 

As  evidence  of  this  resistance  we  find  that  as  early  as  1835 
the  ladies  of  the  Seameen's  x\id  Society  petitioned  the  School 
Board  of  Boston  praying  that  needlework  might  be  taught  to 
the  girls  in  the  grammar  school.  The  Board  adopted  the  fol- 
lowing resolution  in  response  to  the  request: 

Resolved,  That  the  girls  of  the  second  and  third  classes,  who 
attend  the  public  writing  schools  of  this  city,  may  be  instructed 

^  Carlton,  Education  and  Industrial  Evolution.  Dean,  The  Worker  and 
the  State. 


Domestic  Science  53 

by  the  female  instructors  of  said  schools  in  plain  sewing,  one 
hour  in  the  afternoon  of  every  school  day.- 

This,  as  well  as  the  earlier  recognition  which  concerned  only 
the  primary  schools  (1821),  resulted  in  little.  This  is  not  sur- 
prising as  the  provision  was  only  permissive.  The  earlier 
recommendation  was  hardly  that  as  is  seen  from  the  following: 

"The  Committee  particularly  recommends  that  instructors  shall 
employ  the  girls  occasionally  (especially  those  of  the  first  class) 
in  sewing  and  knitting,  so  far  as  the  same  shall  not  interfere 
with  their  progress  and  learning."^ 

"  In  1854,  renewed  interest  in  the  subject  was  manifested, 
and  a  petition,  signed  by  thirty-nine  hundred  and  forty-seven 
women  of  Boston,  requesting  that  sewing  might  be  introduced 
into  all  grammar  schools  for  girls,  was  presented.  The  special 
committee  to  whom  the  subject  was  referred  reported  that  they 
believed  the  usefulness  of  the  schools  would  be  enhanced  by  the 
proposed  change  and  that  no  girl  would  be  considered  properly 
educated  who  could  not  sew,"* 

Not  only  did  this  spirit  of  philanthropic  or  humanitarian 
endeavor  manifest  itself  in  the  form  of  petitions  to  the  school 
authorities  but  through  private  initiative  and  private  support 
instruction  was  carried  on  in  many  schools.  Concerning  this, 
the  New  Haven  Superintendent,  S.  T.  Button,  said :  "  I  cannot 
refrain  from  expressing  the  high  opinion  I  have  formed  of  the 
endeavors  so  long  and  perseveringly  carried  on  to  teach  sewing 
to  poor  and  neglected  children  in  our  ungraded  schools.  The 
fact  that  for  nearly  a  quarter  of  a  century  philanthropic  ladies 
have  been  encouraged  to  carry  on  the  work,  asking  no  aid  from 
the  public  funds,  is  to  me  sufficient  proof  of  its  genuineness. "° 

Early  Sanction 

The  arguments  back  of  these  efforts  were  for  the  most  part 
social  and  economic.  The  following  perhaps  represents  the 
prevailing  view.  "  The  arguments  adduced  in  support  of  the 
measure  were:  That  the  teaching  of  sewing  is  greatly  neglected 
in  a  large  number  of  families  in  the  community,  especially 
among  the  poorer  class;  that  this  ignorance  is  one  cause  of  the 
unthrift  and  ragged  shiftlessness  of  many  homes ;  that  it  pre- 

'  Quoted  in  Barrows.  Conference  of  Manual  Training,  Boston,  1891,  160. 
'Quoted  in  Barnard's  Journal,  1869,  471. 

*  Barrows,  Manual  Training  Conference,  Boston,  1891,  160. 

*  Report  of  Schools,  New  Haven,  Connecticut,  1888. 


54  Social  Factors  Affecting  Special  Supervision 

vents  many  girls  who  wish  to  go  out  to  service  from  obtaining 
any  except  the  lowest  places ;  that  it  increases  the  cost  of  living 
to  the  poor;  because  they  are  not  able  to  repair  their  clothing 
that  the  untidiness,  which  is  its  consequence,  breaks  down  self- 
respect."* 

The  following  quotation  from  Frances  Walker  also  bears 
upon  the  social  sanction  for  this  work :  "  We  are  threatened 
to-day  in  the  United  States  with  the  lowering  of  the  standard 
of  living,  and  with  the  impairment  of  the  sense  of  social  de- 
cency, which  would  altogether  constitute  a  greater  industrial  and 
political  evil  than  we  have  known.  All  the  letters  that  ever 
were  taught  in  our  public  schools  will  not  do  so  much  to 
oppose  and  counteract  the  unfortunate  liabilities  as  the  two  arts 
of  sewing  and  cooking,  properly  taught  under  the  authority 
of  the  State." 

Relatioti  of  Sewing  to  Industrial  Art  Drawing 
With  the  rise  of  the  movement  for  industrial  education  which 
culminated  in  the  introduction  of  industrial  art  drawing,  sewing 
received  much  attention.  The  special  committee  on  industrial 
schools  of  the  Boston  schools  treated  the  subject  thus  (1870): 
"  Every  year  more  girls  are  educated  for  teachers  than  can  find 
places  in  the  schools.  Every  year  the  girls  who  can  never 
become  successful  teachers  even  if  they  find  situations,  are  in- 
structed in  what  can  be  of  no  essential  benefit  to  them  in  after- 
life. They  leave  the  schools  and  many  of  them  are  absolutely 
unqualified  to  obtain  their  living  in  any  employment  that  requires 
specific  skill.  Many  of  them  could  not  get  their  support  by 
plain  sewing;  very  many  of  them  could  not  even  mend  their 
own  clothes.  If  in  connection  with  their  intellectual  training, 
they  had  been  taught  something  which  had  a  direct  bearing 
upon  practical  life,  a  more  useful  and  happy  career  would  be 
open  to  them.  .  .  .  Such  a  training  as  educates  young  ladies 
to  be  teachers  merely  and  leads  them  to  look  upon  other  occu- 
pations as  degrading,  is  surely  not  the  training  belonging  to  us, 
a  sensible  free-working  community.  Labor  can  be  raised  in 
public  estimation  only  by  being  made  a  part  of  the  public 
education."'^ 


'  Harrington,  Annual  Report  of  Schools,  New  Bedford.  Mass.,  1882. 
Report  of  Boston  School  Committee,   1870,  Industrial  Committee. 


Domestic  Science  55 

The  committee  closed  their  report  with  elaborate  recommen- 
dations in  favor  of  an  extension  of  sewing  instruction,  which 
should  be  made  obligatory  in  all  grammar  schools  for  girls. 

Private  Support  in  Boston 

Owing  to  the  legal  difficulties  which  developed  in  connection 
with  the  employment  of  special  teachers  of  sewing,  these  recom- 
mendations did  not  become  effective  for  several  years.  In  the 
interim  Mrs.  Augustus  Hemenway,  a  public-spirited  citizen, 
came  to  the  rescue  with  a  contribution  of  personal  funds,  thus 
affording  another  illustration  of  the  dependence  of  the  school 
upon  the  generosity  and  enthusiasm  of  private  citizens  in  con- 
nection with  the  extension  of  the  curriculum.^  In  1876  the 
Legislature  of  Massachusetts  enacted  a  law  which  authorized 
the  teaching  of  sewing  "  in  any  city  or  town,  and  in  all  the 
public  schools  in  which  the  school  committee  of  said  city  or 
town  deemed  it  expedient.*^  With  this  authority  the  Board 
assumed  the  responsibility  for  instruction  in  this  subject.  The 
advanced  stand  of  Boston  in  this  connection  served  as  a  stimulus 
for  action  elsewhere,  as  was  shown  by  the  fact  that  Boston's 
example  was  cited  quite  generally  in  the  later  appeals  for  public 
school  instruction  in  this  subject.  Superintendent  MacAlister  of 
Philadelphia  referred  to  it  thus  in  1884:  "  But  the  teaching  of 
sewing  is  not  to  be  regarded  as  a  mere  experiment.  Boston 
furnishes  an  example  where  it  is  carried  on  upon  a  large  scale, 
.  .  .  and  a  report  made  to  the  school  committee  upon  the 
subject  contains  important  testimony  as  to  the  value  of  the 
study.''^" 

Relation  of  Sezving  to  Manual  Training 

While  it  is  true  that  much  of  the  interest  in  manual  training 
centered  around  manual  work  for  boys,  nevertheless  the  girls 
came  in  for  a  share  of  consideration.  Indeed  some  of  the 
manual  training  enthusiasm  for  boys  was  an  outgrowth  of 
earlier  efforts  for  girls — a  notable  example  in  this  connection 
is  the  Kitchen  Garden  movement  which,  as   was  stated  in  an 


'  Philbrick.  Circular  of  Information,  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education,  1885, 
91-95- 
*  Ibid.,  94. 
"First  Report  of  MacAlister,  quoted  in  Art  and  Industry,  Part  II,  1178. 


50  Social  Factors  Affecting  Special  Supervision 

earlier  chapter,  Avas  a  progenitor  of  the  New  York  Industrial 
Education  Association.  This  movement  was  started  in  1876 
by  Miss  Emily  Huntington,  a  teacher  in  the  Wilson  Industrial 
School  for  Girls  of  New  York  City.  Miss  Huntington  adapted 
the  kindergarten  methods  and  devices  to  the  task  of  teaching 
the  girls  the  duties  of  the  home.  While  sewing  did  not  receive 
as  much  attention  as  did  some  of  the  other  phases  of  house- 
keeping, it  came  in  for  its  share  in  the  later  development  of 
the  movement.  The  Kitchen  Garden,  which  suggested  the  aim 
as  well  as  the  method,  met  with  a  popular  response. 

Indeed,  the  movement  grew  so  rapidly  that  it  became  neces- 
sary to  take  additional  steps  to  direct  it.  In  January,  1880, 
the  Kitchen  Garden  Association  was  formed  for  the  purpose 
of  wider  diffusion  of  knowledge  relative  to  the  system,  greater 
uniformity  as  to  the  method  in  the  various  schools,  and  to 
secure  its  perpetuation.  The  following  statement  of  purpose  is 
taken  from  the  first  annual  report  of  the  Association : 

"  It  is  the  desire  of  its  managers  to  carry  the  system  into  every 
industrial  and  public  school.  The  necessity  for  such  an  educa- 
tion is  becoming  more  and  more  apparent,  as  they  become  better 
acquainted  with  the  ways  of  living  among  the  poor.  The  teach- 
ing of  the  girl  of  to-day  is  not  in  the  direction  of  household 
industry.  Girls  having  gone  through  the  public  and  normal 
schools  look  down  upon  housework  as  debasing,  and  almost 
invariably  they  seek  positions  in  stores  as  clerks,  saleswomen, 
cashiers  or  bookkeepers.  This  avenue  of  employment  is  rapidly 
becoming  overcrowded  with  applicants.  .  .  .  It  is  to  this 
work  of  industrial  education  that  the  Kitchen  Garden  Associa- 
tion has  addressed  itself,  and  it  has  adopted,  as  its  method  of 
work,  the  Kitchen  Garden  system."^^ 

Especial  attention  is  directed  to  the  sanctions  involved  in 
the  foregoing  statement  of  purpose.  The  people  back  of  this 
movement  certainly  looked  definitely  to  the  restoration  of  domes- 
tic arts,  for  social  and  economic  reasons.  It  is  strikingly  similar 
to  the  statement  set  forth  by  the  Boston  School  Committee  of 
1870  quoted  above. 

The  interest  continued  to  grow,  but  closer  contact  with  the 
work  led  the  leaders  to  realize  the  presence  of  neglected  fields 
of  opportunity.  This  became  so  apparent  that  the  Association 
in  1884  reorganized  under  a  broader  plan,  the  outcome  of  which 

''Ibid.,  Part  II,  258. 


Domestic  Science  57 

was  an  organization  along  the  lines  of  the  manual  training 
movement,  namely,  the  New  York  Industrial  Association  con- 
cerning which  a  rather  full  account  has  already  been  given. 
Under  the  new  influence  the  agitation  for  sewing  took  the  form 
of  manual  training  for  girls.  This  was  so  recognized  by  the 
Board  of  Education  in  New  York  City  when  manual  training 
was  recommended  for  adoption. ^- 

Spread  of  Influence 

Concerning  the  spread  of  the  influence  of  the  Kitchen  Garden 
movement  the  Secretary,  Miss  Grace  H.  Dodge,  wrote  in  1884: 
"  The  system  during  these  years  has  spread  in  a  remarkable 
manner,  not  only  in  different  parts  of  this  country,  but  also  in 
Europe,  and  other  quarters  of  the  world.  There  are  kitchen 
gardens  in  Chicago,  Cincinnati,  Cleveland,  Pittsburgh,  Boston, 
and  Yonkers.  The  second  named  issues  a  monthly  Kitchen 
Garden  Journal  with  a  good  circulation."^^ 

These  local  organizations  wielded  much  pressure  on  the  schools 
and  contributed  not  a  little  to  the  introduction  of  special  in- 
struction for  the  girls  along  the  lines  of  the  parent  association. 
The  following  is  an  account  of  their  activity  in  Cleveland : 

"  In  the  fall  of  1884,  a  few  young  ladies,  possessed  of  com- 
mendable missionary  spirit,  opened  a  kitchen  garden  in  one  of 
the  basement  room.s  of  Unity  Church,  about  twenty  pupils  being 
in  attendance.  The  school  grew  and  prospered  beyond  expecta- 
tion, so  that  early  in  1886  it  was  found  necessary,  in  order 
to  extend  the  work  so  as  to  meet  the  demands,  to  organize  on 
a  more  permanent  basis.  The  '  Cleveland  Domestic  Training 
Association  '  was  the  result.  In  February  of  this  year  the 
cooking  class  was  formed  and  opened  at  number  479  Superior 
street,  seventy  girls  being  enrolled  the  first  term.  By  permission 
of  the  Board  of  Education  free  classes  were  formed  from  the 
pupils  of  the  Rockwell  school.  More  than  seventy  pupils  de- 
sired to  enter,  but  less  than  fifty  could  be  accommodated.  In 
September,  1887,  the  cooking  department  of  the  Association 
became  a  regular  branch  of  the  Cleveland  manual  training 
school."" 

The  foregoing  is  another  striking  instance  of  means  used  in 
transferring  the  responsibility  of  a  new  subject  of  instruction 

"  See  account  of  this  given  in  chapter  on  manual  training. 
"  Fourth  Annual  Report  Kitchen  Garden  Association,  2. 
"  Quoted  from  a  letter  from  the  Superintendent  of  Cleveland  schools, 
in  Pennsylvania  Industrial  Commission  Report,  i88g,  406. 


58  Social  Factors  Affecting  Special  Supervision 

to  the  general  public.  The  outside  group  first  assume  all  ex- 
pense. Later  the  school  authorities  give  permissive  authority 
for  instruction,  followed  by  the  complete  recognition  of  the 
subject.  In  Philadelphia  the  Public  Education  Association 
was  back  of  the  movement  which  led  to  the  introduction  of 
sewing  into  the  Normal  School  in  1881  and  later  (1883)  into 
the  Grammar  School.  This  Association  which  was  an  offshoot 
of  the  Society  for  Organizing  Charity  has  had  a  great  influence 
on  the  schools  of  that  city,  and  has  served  as  a  medium  through 
which  the  changing  social  pressures  have  been  transmitted  to  the 
school  authorities.^^ 

Private  Initiative  in  Cooking  Schools  of  Boston 
The  introduction  of  sewing  was  quickly  followed  by  agitation 
in  favor  of  cooking.  The  influence  of  private  initiative  and 
experiment  is  here  also  manifest.  The  leadership  of  Boston  in 
this  particular  was  likewise  significant.  The  Boston  Cooking 
Classes  were  founded  and  supported  by  Mrs.  Augustus  Hemen- 
way,  who  had  already  been  active  in  the  ultimate  introduction 
of  sewing  into  the  schools.  The  following  is  an  extract  from 
a  paper  entitled  "A  Review  of  two  years'  work  in  the  public 
cooking  school  "  prepared  by  Miss  Amy  Morris  Romans  and 
read  before  the  Industrial  Educational  Association  of  Baltimore, 
in  1887: 

"  In  the  summer  of  1883,  an  Industrial  Vocation  School  was 
opened  in  the  Starr  King  Schoolhouse  for  the  purpose,  not  of 
keeping  girls  out  of  the  streets,  nor  of  pleasantly  entertaining 
them  within  doors,  but  of  finding  out,  if  possible,  by  practical 
experiments,  if  there  were  any  sort  of  manual  training  impor- 
tant for  every  girl  regardless  of  her  social  position,  to  have, 
and,  finding  this  out,  to  ask  the  privilege  of  trying  this  experi- 
ment in  connection  with  the  Public  Schools,  with  the  hope  that 
ultimately  it  should  be  made  a  part  of  this  curriculum,  upon 
the  ground  that  for  any  instruction  of  general  utility  the  public 
money  may  legitimately  be  expended.  The  industrial  school 
was  continued  during  the  summers  of  1883  and  1884.  •  •  • 
In  September,  1885,  a  hearing  was  given  to  persons  interested 
in  industrial  training,  and  at  that  hearing  those  interested  asked 
.  .  .  .  leave  to  maintain  a  cooking  school  which  should  be 
attended  by  one  hundred  and  fifty  girls  from  the  South  End 
Grammar  Schools,   and   which   should    be    known    as     Boston 


Harley,  History  of  the  Public  Education  Association  of  Philadelphia. 


Domestic  Science  59 

School  Kitchen,  No.  i,  as  it  would  be  the  first  Kitchen  in  any 
public  school  house  in  the  United  States.  The  proposition  was 
received  with  kindly  favor  and  in  the  School  Committee  meet- 
ing, October  ly,  1885,  it  was  voted  to  permit  girls  to  attend  the 
Boston  School  Kitchen,  No.  i,  provided  that  the  parents  or 
guardians  of  the  pupils  should  so  request  in  writing,  the  pupils 
to  attend  on  probation.     .     .     ."^^ 

The  following  year  another  school  was  started  under  the 
name  of  Boston  School  Kitchen,  No.  2,  which  was  also  main- 
tained and  managed  by  the  city.^" 

Private  Initiative  in  Cooking  Schools  of  Philadelphia 

In  Philadelphia  the  same  general  tactics  were  pursued.  Su- 
perintendent MacAlister  in  his  report  for  1888  gives  full  credit 
for  the  introduction  of  cookery,  to  the  Public  Education  Asso- 
ciation. The  following  account  of  the  early  steps  is  given  by 
Harley : 

"At  a  meeting  of  the  Executive  Committee  of  the  Association, 
February  9,  1885,  it  was  resolved  that  a  committee  of  three 
be  appointed  to  confer  upon  the  introduction  of  cooking  into 
the  Normal  School.  There  were  a  number  of  conferences  on 
the  subject  with  the  committee  of  the  Board  of  Education,  and 
Mrs.  Julia  Corson,  of  New  York,  was  invited  to  give  demon- 
strations in  the  teaching  of  cooking.  Great  interest  was  shown 
in  this  subject  by  many  of  the  most  prominent  people  in  Phila- 
delphia. On  January  8,  1886,  Mrs.  J.  Lippincott  opened  her 
residence  for  a  concert  by  amateurs  for  the  benefit  of  the  Public 
Education  Association  Cooking  Fund,  and  a  considerable  sum 
was  realized.  Early  in  1887  the  Board  of  Education  decided  to 
place  cooking  in  the  Normal  School  to  take  the  place  of  mythol- 
ogy. Two  rooms  in  the  basement  were  given  for  the  purpose 
and  the  Association  paid  for  the  plant.  The  Association  also 
volunteered  to  contribute  fifteen  hundred  dollars  to  meet  the 
expenses  of  the  school  in  cooking  for  the  season  of  1887- 
88.     .     .     ."" 

These  illustrations  are  simply  typical  of  the  means  used  and 
the  agencies  back  of  the  introduction  of  this  work  for  the  girls. 
The  same  general  forces  back  of  the  movement  in  New  York, 
Cleveland,  Philadelphia  and  Boston,  were  active  all  over  the 
country.     Skillful  organizations  created  such  pressure  that  sew- 

"  Baltimore  Sun,  November  2,  1887. 

"Harley,  History  of  Public  Education  Association  of  Philadelphia.  21. 


6o  Social  Factors  Affecting  Special  Supervision 

ing  and  cooking  gained  a  recognition  in  the  curriculum  which 
has  proved  permanent.  Among  the  institutions  that  have  con- 
tributed much  to  this  end  should  be  mentioned  the  Young 
Woman's  Christian  Association,  Women's  Clubs  of  the  Coun- 
try, and  Home  Economics  Association.^^ 

Modification  after  Fusion  ivith  Manual  Training  Movement 
The  foregoing  quotations  also  indicate  that  the  school  was 
being  continuously  subjected  to  outside  pressure  which  de- 
manded a  more  practical  type  of  instruction  for  the  girls.  In- 
terest was  aroused  and  money  contributed  in  order  that  the 
girls  from  the  homes  of  the  lower  economic  levels  might  be 
fitted  for  better  service  either  as  domestic  servants  or  as  house- 
keepers. The  work  later  became  identified  with  the  manual 
training  movement  and  as  such  was  supported  by  the  manual 
training  arguments.  With  this  came  a  wider  diffusion  of  in- 
struction which  reached  children  of  varying  social  and  economic 
levels.  Also  under  the  influence  of  the  manual  training  idea, 
the  Kitchen  Garden  Association  became  the  Industrial  Educa- 
tion Association.  The  following  account  of  the  extension  of 
the  work  was  given  by  Mrs.  R.  D.  Rickoiif  before  the  National 
Education  Association  in  1887 : 

"  In  the  city  of  New  York  there  was  started  a  little  school 
called  the  *  Kitchen  Garden  '  in  which  the  children  of  the  poor 
were  taught  housework,  and  as  the  work  extended  there  came 
a  cry  that  these  children  were  being  trained  for  servants,  and 
a  company  of  wise  women  under  the  name  of  the  Industrial 
Education  Association  of  the  City  of  New  York  took  up  the 
question  in  this  way :  into  the  fashionable  boarding  schools  they 
introduced  the  subjects  of  sewing  and  cooking,  taught  by  the 
same  teachers  who  taught  the  poor;  and  now  the  question  is 
which  one  is  to  be  the  mistress  and  which  one  the  maid."^" 

Attitude  of  the  School  tozvard  Domestic  Science 
Interest  attaches  to  the  attitude  of  the  school  toward  Domes- 
tic Science  instruction.     Superintendent  Philbrick  expressed  the 
opposition  of  the  teacher  toward  the  introduction  of  sewing  in 
Boston  thus :  "  It  was  the  force  of  public  opinion  and  a  very 

"Spec.    Report,   English    Bd.   of   Ed.,   XV.     Reports   of   Lake    Placid 
Conference. 
"  Proc.  N.  E.  A.,  1887,  227-230. 


Domestic  Science  6i 

good  public  opinion  too,  which  caused  the  introduction  of  sewing 
in  opposition  to  the  general  wishes  of  the  teachers,  and  for  one 
I  frankly  confess  that  I  hope  public  opinion  will  go  much 
further  in  this  direction."-^ 

Many  of  the  leaders  of  educational  thought  of  the  time  seemed 
to  catch  more  of  the  spirit  of  the  practical  demand  in  this  con- 
nection than  in  the  case  of  some  of  the  other  special  subjects. 
True  they  attempted  to  justify  the  work  on  psychological 
grounds,  but  the  practical  side  was  not  lost  sight  of.  This 
double  purpose  is  brought  out  in  the  following  quotation  from 
Superintendent  MacAlister  of  the  Philadelphia  Schools :  "  I  be- 
lieve that  instruction  in  sewing  could  prove  useful  in  two  ways : 
first,  in  providing  a  means  of  manual  training  for  girls,  that 
could  not  fail  to  supply  a  want  long  felt  in  the  schools ;  and 
second,  by  providing  an  opportunity  for  acquiring  an  accomplish- 
ment of  advantage  to  every  woman  in  the  practical  duties  of 
life."" 

Intellectual   Value   Emphasised 

The  tendency  to  justify  the  work  on  intellectual  grounds  was 
however  manifest  in  the  reports  and  addresses  of  the  day.  The 
following  quotations  are  typical  of  the  expressions  of  this  idea: 

"  The  commercial  value  of  sewing  must  be  small  and  even  its 
domestic  value,  except  in  certain  forms,  is  not  what  it  was 
thirty  years  ago ;  but  the  habits  of  attention  which  it  engenders, 
facilitated  by  having  something  tangible  to  attend  to  and  its 
peculiar  character  as  a  feminine  occupation  eminently  fit  it 
for  the  manual  training  for  girls. "-^ 

"  The  moral  and  economic  reasons  for  the  instruction  of  the 
hand  work  have  been  already  presented  in  a  condensed  form. 
Still  another  may  be  added  that  is  directly  in  line  of  mental 
education.  Every  sewing  lesson  is  a  positive  objective  lesson 
of  the  most  excellent  description,  because  it  combines  so  many 
points  of  instruction.  It  trains  the  sight  to  accuracy  of  obser- 
vation, and  the  touch  to  nicety  of  manipulation.  It  calls  the 
perceptive  faculties,  those  of  form,  place,  order,  color,  into 
active  play  and  drill.  It  moreover  puts  the  inventive  faculties 
into  profitable  activity."-* 

"  But  we  are  not  driven  to  defend  the  introduction  of  cooking 
into  the  public  schools,  as  an  invasion  of  the  proper  field  of 

"  Report  of  School  Committee,  Boston.  1869. 

"Quoted  in  Art  and  Industry,  Part  II,  1178-1179. 

"  Dawson,  in  Commissioner  of  Education  Report,  1887,  876. 

"  Harrington,  Annual  Report,  New  Bedford,  Mass.,  1882. 


62  Social  Factors  Affecting  Special  Supervision 

education,  justified  by  due  necessity.  No  one  can  spend  an  hour 
in  the  cooking  schools  of  Boston  .  .  .  without  being  im- 
pressed by  the  very  high  educative  value  of  the  instruction  given. 
The  short  course,  which  alone  the  means  at  command  allowed 
to  be  given  to  each  class  of  girls,  has  constituted,  I  do  not  doubt, 
the  best  body  of  purely  educational  training  which  any  girl  of 
all  those  classes  ever  experienced  within  the  same  number  of 
hours."'^ 

It  is  thus  seen  that  sewing  was  subjected  to  the  same  intel- 
lectual interpretation  which  was  given  to  the  manual  training 
work.  The  schoolmaster  in  both  instances  felt  the  necessity 
of  justifying  the  new  work  on  the  basis  of  the  traditional 
mental  value  of  the  schoolroom.  It  is  true  that  in  some  in- 
stances the  work  was  undertaken  in  the  spirit  of  its  origin. 
As  an  example  of  the  benevolent  point  of  view  the  following 
statement  is  taken  from  the  report  of  the  committee  on  sewing 
in  the  schools  of  Worcester,  Massachusetts,  in  1879: 

"  Our  domestics  are  most  frequently  useless  for  plain  sewing 
and  mending;  and  even  the  parish  sewing  circle  of  the  present 
shows  a  lamentable  lack  in  this  essential  art.  If  brought  into 
school  practice  as  a  part  of  a  regular  discipline,  sewing  carries 
its  civilizing  influence  directly  home;  .  .  .  again  the  sewing 
hours  should  bring  a  cheerful  rest,  not  of  idleness,  but  of  change : 
a  glad  sense  of  business  should  abound.  The  souls  of  children 
are  in  sunshine  when  their  hands  are  understandingly  employed. 
A  little  colored  boy  in  Dix  Street  School  stitching  and  hemming 
a  coarse  brown  night  cap  for  his  dear  old  Grandma  brightened 
a  whole  room."^® 

Such  a  picture  needs  no  comment. 

Sewing  and  Cooking  Less  Refracted  by  Schoolroom  Traditions 
than  Manual  Training 
Thus  we  reach  the  conclusion  that  sewing  and  cooking  owe 
their  place  in  the  school  in  a  large  measure  to  the  benevolent 
interest  which  was  aroused  by  the  change  in  the  social  and 
economic  condition  of  the  people.  This  work  has  been  subject 
to  a  certain  refraction  within  the  schoolroom  owing  to  the 
conflict  with  the  intellectual  purpose  and  traditions  of  the  school. 
This  refraction  has  been  less,  however,  than  in  the  case  of 
manual  training,  because  of  the  possibility  of  a  wider  application 


"Walker,  Proc.  N.  E.  A.,  1887,  19^205. 

*■  Report  of  Massachusetts  Board  of  Education,  1879,  Appendix  E. 


Domestic  Science  63 

of  the  subject  taught.  Sewing  and  cooking  have  been  so  inti- 
mately associated  with  the  Hves  of  women  that  popular  sanction 
favors  a  practical  skill  in  these  arts.  Such  is  not  the  case  with 
any  one  of  the  lines  of  manual  training  for  boys.^^ 

Administration 

The  prevailing  means  of  securing  and  directing  instruction 
in  domestic  science  has  been  the  employment  of  special  teach- 
ers or  supervisors,  who  have  taken  in  the  main  the  entire  re- 
sponsibility of  this  work.-* 

Summary 

The  changing  economic  and  social  conditions  of  the  last  cen- 
tury were  paralleled  by  a  decline  in  the  industries  of  the  home. 
As  the  significance  of  these  changes  became  more  apparent, 
the  humanitarian  interests  of  the  period  united  in  the  attempt 
to  correct  certain  tendencies.  This  very  early  took  the  form 
of  a  demand  for  formal  instruction  for  girls  in  certain  house- 
hold arts. 

Through  skillful  organization  and  agitation,  pressure  was 
brought  to  bear  upon  the  schools  which  resulted  in  the  wide- 
spread introduction  of  sewing  and  cooking. 

The  traditions  of  the  school  were  such  that  the  intellectual 
value  received  especial  emphasis,  although  the  practical  ends 
involved  were  so  imminent  that  the  refraction  in  these  subjects 
was  made  less  than  in  the  case  of  manual  training. 


Ravenhill,  Spec.  Rept.  Eng.  Bd.  of  Ed.,  XV,  19-20. 
See  Chapter  XI. 


CHAPTER  VI 
PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 

Early  Attitude 

Popular  interest  in  physical  education  is  of  comparatively 
recent  date,  although  there  has  been  more  or  less  agitation  in 
this  connection  from  the  very  beginning  of  educational  history. 
This  early  interest  centered  around  the  idea  of  getting  exercise 
by  means  of  work,  although  certain  recognition  was  given  to 
free  exercise.  The  following  quotation  from  Benjamin  Franklin 
suggests  a  type  of  physical  work  which  sounds  quite  like  that 
recommended  to-day :  "  That  the  boarding  scholars  diet  together, 
plainly,  temperately  and  frugally ;  that  to  keep  them  in  health, 
and  to  strengthen  and  to  render  active  their  bodies,  they  be 
frequently  exercised  in  running,  leaping,  wrestling  and  swim- 
ming."^ 

Although  Franklin  was  intimately  associated  with  the  educa- 
tional affairs  of  the  time,  there  is  little  evidence  to  be  found 
to  indicate  that  any  practical  step  was  taken  to  carry  out  these 
proposals. 

Exercise  through  Work 

In  1790,  Noah  Webster  in  his  address  to  young  gentlemen 
gave  expression  to  this  sentiment :  "  Where  it  is  not  the  lot  of 
a  young  person  to  labor  in  agriculture  or  mechanic  arts  some 
laborious  amusement  should  constantly  and  daily  be  pursued 
as  a  substitute. "- 

In  the  same  year  Dr.  Benjamin  Rush  of  Philadelphia  in  ''An 
Essay  on  Amusements  and  Punishments  proper  for  Boys," 
called  attention  to  the  desirability  of  having  the  youth  take 
exercise  in  the  form  of  zvork  which  would  fit  into  their  future 
lives.     "  In  the  Methodist  College  in  Maryland  a  large  lot  is 

'  Proposals  relating  to  the  Education  of  Youth  in  Pennsylvania.  Ben- 
jamin Franklin  in  Smyth,  Life  and  Writings  of  Benjamin  Franklin,  II,  390. 

"  Quoted  by  Hartwell,  in  a  paper  read  before  Amer.  Assn.  for  Advance- 
ment of  Physical  Ed.,  1892.    Page  23  of  Proc.  of  A.  A.  A.  P.  E.,  1902. 

64 


Physical  Education  65 

divided  among  the  scholars  and  premiums  are  adjudged  to  those 
who  raise  the  most  vegetables."  ..."  The  Methodists  have 
banished  every  species  of  play  from  their  college."^ 

It  is  to  be  expected  that  in  a  time  when  there  was  so  much 
physical  work  to  do,  little  attention  would  be  given  to  exercise 
that  was  either  artificially  stimulated  or  in  which  the  spirit  of 
play  dominated.  It  is  also  to  be  borne  in  mind  that  there  was 
little  opportunity  for  sedentary  life.  Agriculture,  which  was  the 
dominant  industry,  certainly  provided  for  a  full  round  of  physi- 
cal exercise.  The  home  industries  of  the  time  also  necessi- 
tated a  wide  range  of  bodily  activities.  Nor  were  the  luxuries 
sufficiently  refined  to  enable  one  to  get  through  the  day  without 
putting  forth  a  large  measure  of  purely  physical  exertions. 

Under  these  rigorous  conditions  it  is  not  surprising  to  find 
that  the  first  scattering  recognition  of  a  need  for  exercise  should 
take  the  form  of  military  exercise  or  of  manual  labor  in  schools. 

Jefferson's  Military  Ideal 

In  this  connection  Thomas  Jefferson's  recommendation  in  the 
"  Rockfish  Gap  Commission,"  which  was  preliminary  to  the 
foundation  of  the  University  of  Virginia,  is  of  interest.  "  These 
exercises  (Gymnastics)  with  ancient  nations  constituted  the  prin- 
cipal part  of  the  education  of  their  youth.  Their  arms  and 
mode  of  warfare  rendered  them  severe  in  the  extreme;  ours 
on  the  same  correct  principle,  should  be  adapted  to  our  arms 
and  warfare;  and  its  manual  exercises,  military  maneuvers,  and 
tactics  generally  should  be  the  frequent  exercise  of  the  stu- 
dents in  their  hours  of  recreation.  It  is  at  that  age  of  aptness, 
docility,  and  emulation  of  the  practices  of  manhood  that  such 
things  are  soonest  learned  and  longest  remembered.  The  use 
of  tools  too,  in  the  manual  arts  is  worthy  of  encouragement, 
by  facilitating,  to  such  as  choose  it.  an  admission  in  the  neigh- 
boring workshop."* 

Although  practically  nothing  came  directly  from  this  recom- 
mendation it  shows  the  recognition  of  the  need  and  the  argu- 
ment back  of  one  form  of  exercise. 


'  Rush,  Essays  Literary,  Moral  and  Philosophical :  Quoted  in  Hartwell, 
Circular  of  Information,  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education,  No.  5.  1885,  16. 

*  Quoted  in  Circular  of  Information,  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education.  No.  2, 
1888,  93- 


66  Social  Factors  Affecting  Special  Supervision 

Military  Academies 

Captain  Alden  Partridge  who  was  for  a  time  associated  with 
the  mihtary  academy  at  West  Point,  was  an  enthusiastic  leader 
in  the  movement  in  favor  of  military  drill.  In  1820,  he  gave 
expression  in  his  lecture  on  education  to  the  following: 

"Another  defect  in  the  present  system  is  the  entire  neglect  in 
all  our  principal  seminaries  of  physical  education.  ...  It 
is  from  a  want  of  this  (a  regular  and  systematic  course  of 
exercise  for  the  preservation  of  health)  that  so  many  of  our 
most  promising  youths  lose  their  health  by  the  time  they  are 
prepared  to  enter  in  the  grand  theatre  of  useful  and  active  life."^ 

As  a  means  of  meeting  this  difficulty  Partridge  founded  the 
American  Literary,  Scientific  and  Military  Academy  at  Nor- 
wich, Vermont.  In  addition  to  the  literary  and  military  fea- 
tures, due  recognition  was  given  to  the  utiliarian  side  of  manual 
labor.  "Another  portion  6i  their  time  should  be  devoted  to 
practical  agricultural  pursuits.  .  .  .  To  the  institution 
should  be  attached  a  range  of  mechanic's  shops.''* 

This  need  of  physical  education  coupled  with  the  fresh  recol- 
lection of  the  recent  military  struggle  provided  a  background 
for  a  popular  acceptance  of  military  training  as  a  desirable 
means  of  making  provision  for  both  exigencies.  The  continued 
success  of  the  military  academy  in  this  country  is  a  testimony 
of  the  public  approval  of  such  an  institution  even  to  the  present 
time. 

German  Gymnastics 

With  the  advent  of  the  German  influence  about  the  close  of 
the  first  quarter  of  the  last  century  came  renewed  attentions  to 
the  physical  side  of  education.'^ 

Round  Hill  School  which  was  started  at  Northampton,  Massa- 
chusetts in  1825,  represented  the  first  fruits  of  travel  in  Ger- 
many by  American  educators.  The  School  was  patterned  after 
the  German.^ 

Mr.  Charles  Beck,  a  former  pupil  of  Father  Jahn,  introduced 
the  German  system  of  free  gymnastics.  As  a  result  of  the  politi- 
cal difficulties  in  the  Fatherland  a  number  of  highly  educated 

"  Quoted  in  Barnard's  American  Journal  of  Education,  vol.  XIII,  58. 

*Ibid.,  61. 

'  Ibid.,  vol.  XV,  233-234 ;  vol.  XXV,  CXV. 

'  Hinsdale,  Commissioner  of  Education  Report,  1897-1898,  vol.  I. 


Physical  Education  67 

German  Turners  came  to  this  country  within  the  next  year  or 
two,  and  contributed  much  to  the  popular  interest  in  this  form 
of  exercise.  One  of  these  men,  Dr.  Charles  Follen,  was  placed 
in  charge  of  the  newly  established  gymnasium  at  Harvard.* 
In  July  of  the  same  year  a  mass  meeting  of  citizens  was  held 
in  Boston  for  the  purpose  of  promoting  gymnastic  exercise, 
which  resulted  in  the  establishment  of  the  Boston  Gymnasium. 
In  their  statement  of  purpose  we  find  that  they  intended  to 
make  the  gymnasium  "  a  department  of  public  education,  under 
the  patronage  of  the  city.""  German  influence  prevailed  in  the 
leadership  of  Dr.  Follen  and  later  Dr.  Leibler.  At  first  the 
results  were  satisfying  and  the  influence  spread  rapidly,  but  it 
proved  impossible  to  transplant  the  German  system  of  gymnas- 
tics from  the  social  and  political  setting  from  which  it  sprang. 
In  the  Fatherland  the  whole  movement  was  interwoven  with 
the  dreams  of  the  political  ideals  of  the  time.  Even  those  who 
cam.e  over  to  direct  the  movement  after  it  was  shorn  of  these 
vitalizing  forces  soon  lost  interest.^^  By  1830  the  wave  of 
interest  had  spent  itself. 

Fellenherg  Movement 

In  the  meantime  interest  had  increased  in  another  foreign 
idea,  known  as  the  Fellenberg  experiment,  reference  to  which 
has  already  been  made  in  connection  with  the  chapters  on 
manual  training  and  domestic  science.  Much  faith  was  manifest 
in  this  means  of  providing  a  practical  sort  of  physical  exercise. 
This  appealed  to  a  more  popular  sanction  than  did  the  gymnastic 
exercise.  Concerning  this,  the  following  quotation  is  suggestive 
from  Thomas  Weld,  a  leader  in  the  cause  of  manual  labor 
schools  (1832)  :  "Gymnastic  exercises  excite  aversion  and  con- 
tempt in  the  public  mind.  The  people  are  disgusted  and  repelled 
by  the  grotesque  and  ludicrous  antics  of  the  gymnasium.  They 
say  '  leave  wooden  horses  to  children  and  monkey  tricks  to 
monkeys.'  "^^ 

'  Boykin,  Commissioner  of  Education  Report,  1891-1892,  vol.  I,  503. 
Hartwell,  Proc.  A.  A.  A.  P.  E.,  1892,  26-28. 

"Commissioner  of  Education  Report,  1891-1892,  504;  also  Barnard, 
American  Journal  of  Education,  XV,  334. 

"  Boykin,  Ibid.,  502-506.  Hartwell,  Circular  of  Information,  U.  S. 
Bureau  of  Education,  No.  5,  1885,  21-24. 

"  Quoted  in  Commissioner  of  Education  Report,  1891-1892,  I,  509. 


68  Social  Factors  Affecting  Special  Supervision 

This  type  of  schools  made  an  especially  strong  appeal  to  the 
men  in  charge  of  theological  schools.  The  following  is  a  quotation 
from  a  set  of  resolutions  adopted  at  a  meeting  held  in  New 
York,  1831.  This  meeting  had  been  called  to  discuss  "the  sub- 
ject of  introducing  manual  labor  into  literary  institutions  as  a 
system  of  exercise  for  students."  "  It  is  indispensable  that  a 
well  regulated  system  of  exercise  should  be  introduced  into  all 
places  of  education,  .  .  .  that  manual  labor  ought,  as  far 
as  possible,  to  be  introduced  in  literary  institutions  as  a  means 
of  promoting  health,  diminishing  the  expense  of  education  and 
cultivating  all  those  qualities  in  a  minister  of  the  Gospel,  which 
the  nature  of  his  office  requires  and  the  exigencies  of  the  present 
age  most  loudly  demands."^^ 

The  movement  was  very  popular  for  the  next  decade  and 
scores  of  institutions  were  established  throughout  the  country. 
However,  the  distinctive  features  soon  disappeared  in  all  except 
the  charity  schools.^*  They  at  last  recognized  that  work  had  its 
limitations  as  a  form  of  exercise  for  mental  workers. 

Physiology  and  Hygiene 

Meantime  the  study  of  physiology  and  hygiene  was  growing 
in  popular  interest  in  this  country  and  in  Europe.  Although 
this  included  more  than  mere  exercise  of  the  body,  yet  this 
came  in  for  its  full  share  of  attention.  This  was  accompanied 
by  the  rise  of  sporadic  systems  of  exercise  which  were  sup- 
posed to  have  wonderful  formative  and  curative  effects.  The 
credulity  of  the  public  in  this  particular  was  not  unlike  that 
which  has  been  manifested  in  certain  quarters  within  recent 
years.  Some  of  the  "  Professors  "  were  no  doubt  self-deluded ; 
other  were  quacks  pure  and  simple. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  that  there  were  men  who  saw  the 
fallacies  both  in  the  manual  labor  and  in  the  pure  exercise  pro- 
paganda even  at  this  early  date.  In  an  address  before  the 
American  Institute  of  Instruction  in  1836,  Dr.  W.  A.  Alcott 
said :  "  I  would,  however,  lay  down  one  rule  which  is  applicable 
to  all  places,  cases  and  circumstances.  Exercise  to  be  useful 
to  pupils  should  be  such   as   will  call  off  the  mind   from  its 


'''Ibid.,  S07. 
^*Ibid.,  506-510. 


Physical  Education  69 

common  pursuits  or  studies.  It  is  not  sufficient  to  exercise  the 
muscles ;  the  mind  too  must  be  exercised  and  amused.  I  would 
not  say  that  it  is  of  no  use  to  saw  wood  or  to  walk  to  a  certain 
corner,  or  a  certain  post  every  day.  I  believe  that  even  this  is 
of  some  service.  But  it  is  of  little  avail,  compared  with  some- 
thing which  would  at  the  same  time  interest  and  excite  the 
mind.  The  pupil  should  bury,  as  it  were,  all  his  usual  employ- 
ments, in  order  to  get  the  full  benefit  of  the  exercise."^^ 

Demand  for  School  Exercise 

By  the  middle  of  the  century  there  came  a  demand  for  a 
system  of  exercises  suited  to  schoolroom  practice.  Superintend- 
ent Bishop  of  the  Boston  Schools  in  1852  said:  "In  addition 
to  the  exercises  allowed  at  the  time  of  recesses  each  half  day, 
all  the  younger  children  need  provision  for  some  gentle  exercise 
as  often  as  once  in  every  half  hour,  such  as  rising,  walking, 
marching,  accompanied  with  such  motions  of  the  arms  as  would 
tend  to  give  fullness  and  erection  to  the  chest."^^ 

In  the  decade  which  followed  there  was  a  steady  rise  in  the 
curve  of  interest  in  School  Gymnastics,  which  was  manifested 
in  recommendations  for  the  school  as  in  the  case  cited  above. 
Relative  to  the  causes  back  of  this  interest,  Mr.  James  C. 
Boykin,  a  specialist  in  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Education, 
said :  "  There  is  certainly  every  reason  to  believe  that  the  influx 
of  intelligent  Germans  into  this  country  after  the  political  dis- 
turbance in  Europe  in  1848  had  much  to  do  with  the  general 
interest  in  physical  training  that  was  so  plainly  apparent  in  the 
next  five  or  six  years. "^^ 

Dio  Lewis  as  a  Leader 

Thus  conditions  were  growing  more  favorable  for  the  advent 
of  a  leader  who  could  direct  attention  to  a  system  of  exercise 
which  could  be  carried  on  in  the  schoolroom  or  in  the  home 
with  a  minimum  amount  of  apparatus.  This  leader  appeared 
in  the  form  of  Diocletian  Lewis.  Boykin  gives  the  following 
graphic  account  of  his  appearance  before  the  American  Insti- 
tute of  Instruction  in  i860:  "  In  some  way  Dr.  Lewis  attracted 

"Alcott,  W.  A.,  American  Institute  of  Instruction,  1836. 

"Report  of  the  Boston  School  Committee,  1852. 

"  Commissioner  of  Education  Report,  1891-1892,  I,  514. 


70  Social  Factors  Affecting  Special  Supervision 

the  attention  of  the  managers  of  the  meeting  and  was  invited 
to  appear  before  it  and  '  explain  and  illustrate  his  new  system.' 
He  did  so  and  such  an  impression  was  made  at  the  end  of  the 
half  hour  allotted  him,  that  his  time  was  extended  and  he  occu- 
pied two  hours  of  the  time  of  the  meeting.    The  next  morning 

he  was  accorded  two  hours  more  and  at  noon  still  another 
hour."i8 

With  such  an  advent  into  the  public  mind  it  is  not  surprising 
that  enthusiasm  for  his  system  grew  very  rapidly,  nor  that  his 
methods  were  widely  adopted.  In  writing  on  this  popular  re- 
ception of  Lewis,  Thomas  Wentworth  Higginson  said  in  1861 : 
"  Until  lately  all  our  educational  plans  have  assumed  man  to 
be  a  merely  sedentary  being.  .  .  .  It  is  something  to  have 
got  beyond  this  period  where  active  sports  were  actually  pro- 
hibited. I  remember  when  there  was  but  one  boat  owned  by 
a  Cambridge  student,  and  that  boat  was  soon  reported  to  have 
been  suppressed  by  the  faculty,  on  the  plea  that  there  was  a 
college  law  against  students  keeping  domestic  animals  and  a  boat 
was  a  domestic  animal  within  the  meaning  of  the  statute.  .  .  . 
It  would  be  unpardonable  in  this  connection  not  to  speak  a  good 
word  for  the  favorite  hobby  of  the  day — ^Dr.  Lewis  and  his 
system  of  gymnastics.  .  .  .  Dr.  Winship  had  done  all  that 
was  needed  in  apostleship  of  severe  exercises,  and  there  was 
wanting  some  man  with  a  milder  hobby,  perfectly  safe  for  a 
lady  to  drive.  The  fates  provided  that  man  also  in  Dr.  Lewis 
— so  hale  and  hearty,  so  profoundly  confident  in  the  omnipo- 
tence of  his  methods  and  the  uselessness  of  all  others ;  with 
such  a  ready  invention  and  such  an  inundation  of  animal  spirits 
that  he  could  flood  any  company,  no  matter  how  starched  or  list- 
less, with  an  unbounded  appetite  for  ball  games  and  bean 
games. "^® 

It  is  hard  to  tell  what  the  outcome  of  the  popular  move- 
ment would  have  been  had  it  not  been  overshadowed  by  the 
military  exercises  in  connection  with  the  Civil  War.  However, 
the  agitation  was  to  a  limited  extent  reflected  in  the  schools. 

Within  the  next  two  or  three  years  this  system  was  intro- 
duced into  a  number  of  school  systems  of  the  country,  includ- 


'' Ibid.,  516. 

"  Circular  of  Information,  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education,  No.  5,  1885,  28. 


Physical  Education  71 

ing  Boston,  Cincinnati,  and  St.  Louis.  It  was  impossible  to 
keep  up  interest  in  this  type  of  exercise  amid  the  strenuous 
times  of  war.  "  The  force  of  the  movement  soon  spent  itself 
and  the  schemes  for  physical  training  assumed  a  semi-military 
character."^" 

Decline  of  Interest 

Within  the  next  few  years  there  seemed  to  be  a  steady  decline 
in  interest  in  any  form  of  physical  education.  The  following 
account  of  the  decline  in  Cincinnati  is  fairly  typical:  "  In  1861 
gymnastics  was  introduced  as  a  regular  exercise  under  the  direc- 
tion of  instructors  specially  employed  for  that  purpose.  .  .  . 
From  1861  to  1865,  there  was  a  standing  committee  on  gym 
nasties,  consisting  of  five  members ;  in  1865,  this  number  was 
reduced  to  three;  in  1878,  the  'committee  on  gymnastics'  was 
abolished  and  instead  there  was  substituted  the  committee  on 
hygiene  of  five  members;  in  1881,  the  committee  on  hygiene 
disappeared  and  its  place  was  taken  by  the  '  committee  on 
boundaries,  statistics  and  hygiene  '  of  three  members."-^ 

Rise  of  German  Influence 

Of  the  forces  which  contributed  to  the  renewed  interest  in 
physical  education  in  the  eighties,  perhaps  the  most  significant 
was  the  German  influence  operating  through  the  North  Amer- 
ican Gymnastic  Union.^- 

The  following  quotation  from  their  platform  adopted  in  1884 
suggests  their  point  of  view  and  their  means  of  attaining  this 
end :  "  It  is  one  of  the  chief  aims  of  the  gymnastic  societies, 
and  of  the  Gymnastic  Union,  to  labor  for  the  introduction  of 
systematic  gymnastic  training  into  the  existing  schools,  since 
such  training  is  indispensable  to  the  thorough  education  of  the 
young.  .  .  .  It  is  furthermore  the  duty  of  these  societies  to 
labor  in  their  own  sphere,  for  the  establishment  and  perfection 
of  good  German-English  schools  in  which  music,  singing,  draw- 
ing, and  gymnastics  receive  full  attention.  .  .  .  It  is  obli- 
gacory  upon  the  societies  to  provide  for  the  further  education  of 
their  members  by  arranging  for  instructive  addresses,  lectures, 

^^  Ibid.,  29.    A\so  Bar yiard's  American  Journal  of  Education,  vol.  IV,  236. 
•'  Boykin,  Commissioner  of  Education  Report,  1891,  vol.  I,  527. 
"  Hartwell,  Physical  Education,  vol.  V,  8. 


72  Social  Factors  Affecting  Special  Supervision 

or  discussions,  once  a  month ;  and  such  topics  chiefly  shall 
te  selected  for  this  purpose  as  relate  to  the  resolutions  and  prin- 
ciples of  the  Gymnastic  Union. "-^ 

Results  of  Activity  of  Turners 

It  is  interesting  to  compare  the  plans  which  were  here  set 
forth  with  those  of  the  New  York  Industrial  Association,  the 
success  of  which  has  been  noted  in  an  earlier  chapter.  The 
similarity  in  the  means  employed  by  these  two  organizations  in 
their  later  development  is  striking.  The  steps  of  organization, 
agitation,  free  introduction,  joint  management,  followed  by  com- 
plete introduction,  which  were  noted  in  the  case  of  manual 
training  and  domestic  science,  were  typical  also  in  the  case  of 
the  introduction  of  physical  education  under  the  influence  of 
the  Turners.  In  St.  Louis  the  demand  for  this  work  was  sup- 
ported by  a  petition  signed  by  over  fourteen  thousand  citizens.^* 

Cincinnati  as  a  Type 

The  following  petition  which  was  submitted  to  the  Board  of 
Education  of  Cincinnati  in  1891  outlines  the  plan  pursued : 

Gentlemen  : 

The  members  of  the  four  Turnverein  or  Gymnasiums  of  this  city 
desirous  of  having  the  physical  well-being  of  our  youth  cared  for,  as  well 
as  the  intellectual  one,  wish  to  impress  upon  your  honorable  body  the 
necessity  of  a  rational  physical  training  of  the  pupils  of  our  Common 
Schools.  In  order  to  give  your  honorable  body  an  opportunity  to  per- 
sonally acquaint  yourselves  with  the  various  steps  taken  during  a  series 
of  systematic  exercises,  with  a  view  of  developing  the  physical  faculties 
of  the  rising  generation,  our  three  teachers  of  gymnastics,  Messrs.  Eck- 
stein, Knoch,  and  Speidel,  offered  to  teach  gymnastics,  without  any  charge 
whatever  for  three  months,  and  permission  given  them  to  devote  at  least 
fifteen  minutes  daily  to  each  class  receiving  instruction  in  gymnastics.  It 
is  hopeful,  in  case  of  your  acceptance  of  our  offer,  that  the  members  of 
your  honorable  body  will  witness  the  exercises  as  often  as  possible,  and 
we  trust  that  they  will  readily  see  the  necessity  of  the  harmonious  de- 
velopment of  body  and  mind,  and  vote  for  a  speedy  and  permanent 
introduction  of  gymnastics  in  our  Common  Schools. 

Respectfully, 

Alfred  Herhotz,  Secretary. 
Committee  for  Introduction  of  Physical  Culture  into  the  Common  Schools.^" 


^  From  Sections  21-23,  quoted  in  Circular  of  Information,  U.  S.  Bureau 
of  Education,  No.  5,  2885,  182. 

"Boykin,  Commissioner  of  Education  Report,  1891-1892,  I,  525. 
"*  Shotwell,  Schools  of  Cincinnati,  286. 


Physical  Education  73 

With  such  appeals  backed  up  by  strong  organization  of  influ- 
ential people  it  is  not  surprising  to  find  that  these  requests  were 
granted. 

Other  Organisations  Contributed 

Among  the  other  influences  that  contributed  to  the  movement 
at  this  period  should  be  mentioned,  the  Young  Men's  Christian 
Association,  and  the  Women's  Christian  Temperance  Union. 
The  former  association  through  its  gymnasium  and  training 
schools  and  enthusiastic  leaders,  accomplished  much  in  the  way 
of  stimulation  of  interest  in  the  general  cause  of  physical  edu- 
cation.-^ 

The  temperance  union  maintained  a  department  devoted  to 
the  interests  of  physical  education  and  contributed  not  a  little 
toward  the  development  of  a  popular  sentiment  in  favor  of 
increased  attention  toward  this  phase  of  education.-^ 

Also  the  American  Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Physi- 
cal Education  which  was  organized  in  1885,^^  contributed  very 
much  to  the  spread  of  interest.  The  plan  of  having  state 
branches  of  the  organization  gave  it  an  additional  leverage  in 
this  particular. 

Private  Initiative  in  Boston 

As  was  noted  in  the  case  of  the  other  subjects  private  gener- 
osity contributed  to  the  introduction  of  the  subject  into  the 
schools.  The  individual  efforts  of  Mrs.  Augustus  Hemenway 
whose  activity  in  connection  with  the  Boston  Schools  has 
already  been  mentioned,  was  very  significant  in  the  East  and 
really  did  much  toward  the  spread  of  the  Swedish  system  of 
gymnastics.  In  1888,  Mrs.  Hemenway  provided  for  a  course 
of  instruction  under  Mr.  Nils  Posse  for  twenty-five  of  the 
teachers  in  the  Boston  Schools.  This  proved  so  satisfactory  that 
the  following  year  she  broadened  the  scope  of  her  experiment 
and  entered  into  an  agreement  with  the  School  Board  whereby 
she  was  to  provide  instruction  for  one  hundred  of  the  city  teach- 
ers without  any  expense  to  the  city,  on  condition  that  these  teach- 
ers be  allowed  the  time  to  present  the  work  in  turn  in  the 
schools.     In  the  year  following,  the  work  was  made  a  part  of 

"•Gulick,  Proc.  A.  A.  A.  P.  E.  1891,  43-47. 

"  Proc.  N.  E.  A.,  1901,  760-765. 

"»  Proc.  A.  A.  A.  P.  E.,  1885,  et  scq. 


74  Social  Factors  Affecting  Special  Supervision 

the  regular  school  curriculum,  and  a  Director  of  Physical  Train- 
ing employed.  In  the  meantime,  Mrs.  Hemenway  had  provided 
at  her  own  expense  a  teacher  of  this  system  of  gymnastics  for 
the  Normal  School.-'' 

Union  of  Forces  Produced  Wave  of  Enthusiasm 

With  all  these  factors  at  work,  the  movement  by  the  later 
eighties  was  situated  almost  ideally  for  the  generation  of  a 
great  wave  of  enthusiasm.  Not  only  was  there  an  intellectual 
interest  in  this  subject,  supported  by  a  National  Organization 
with  state  branches,  but  there  was  generated  a  widespread  emo- 
tional interest  through  the  other  organizations.  Turning  has 
been  close  to  the  German  heart  for  generations.  When  to  this 
sentiment  was  added  the  actual  pleasure  that  was  derived  in  the 
Turnverein  Halls,  it  is  small  wonder  that  they  have  indeed  re- 
mained zealots. 

The  Young  Men's  Christian  Association  dominated  as  it  has 
been  by  lofty  purpose  and  the  enthusiasm  of  youth,  furnished 
a  powerful  ally  in  the  emotional  awakening.  The  Women's 
Christian  Temperance  Union  was  likewise  rich  in  feeling. 

By  the  very  nature  of  these  organizations  they  cut  crosswise 
through  the  social  structure,  uniting  for  the  purpose  groups 
of  otherwise  widely  divergent  interests  and  passions.  Thus  it 
is  not  surprising  to  find  that  physical  education  was  rapidly  in- 
troduced into  the  schools  from  one  end  of  the  country  to  the 
other.  The  reports  submitted  to  the  United  States  Commissioner 
of  Education  indicate  that  during  the  interval  from  1889  to  1892 
the  subject  was  introduced  into  over  one  hundred  cities.^" 

Reception  zuithin  the  School 
The  question  again  arises  as  to  the  spirit  in  which  this 
pressure  was  received  in  the  schoolroom.  How  did  the  school 
respond  to  this  call  for  increased  attention  to  the  health  of  the 
child?  Although  there  is  no  record  of  hostility  toward  the 
movement  the  traditions  of  the  school  were  operative  in  direct- 
ing attention  to  the  intellectual  side  of  this  form  of  education. 
This  was  due  not  only  to  the  dominant  conception  of  the  doc- 
trine of  formal  discipline  itself,  and  the  belief  that  a  few  minutes 

~  Commissioner  of  Education  Report,  1891-1892,  I,  534. 
''Ibid.,  582-594- 


Physical  Education  75 

given  over  each  day  to  one  activity  would  carry  over  to  remote 
activities,  but  to  the  lack  of  a  clear  recognition  of  the  relations 
which  existed  between  health  and  muscular  exercise. 

Physical  Exercise  in  the  Place  of  the  Recess  Period 

In  many  places  physical  culture  was  made  to  take  the  place 
of  the  recess  period  for  the  children.  Concerning  this  plan,  Miss 
Anna  Morris,  of  Des  Moines,  Iowa,  said  before  the  National 
Education  Association :  "  Believing  as  we  do  that  outdoor  re- 
cesses are  productive  of  more  evil  than  good,  from  harmful 
associates,  violent  and  irregular  exercise,  indiscriminate  racing 
and  shouting,  we  have  given  this  phase  of  the  work  special 
attention  and  would  suggest  recess  recreation  instead  of  recess 
gymnastics.  The  windows  can  be  thrown  open  while  the  pupils 
engage  in  full  deep  breathing  and  recreative  marching;  they 
can  practice  on  the  horizontal  bar  suspended  in  the  cloak  room 
door,  or  they  can  exercise  on  the  vaulting  bar.  .  .  .  And  in 
relaxing  exercises — all  of  which  afford  cheerful  recreation."'^ 

Physical  Exercise  as  a  Training  of  the  Will 

The  Committee  of  Fifteen  of  the  Department  of  Superin- 
tendence which  reported  to  that  body  in  1895  on  educational 
values  said : 

"  Systematic  physical  training  has  for  its  object  rather  will 
training  than  recreation,  and  this  must  not  be  forgotten.  To 
go  from  hard  lessons  to  a  series  of  calisthenic  exercises  is  to 
go  from  one  kind  of  will  training  to  another."'- 

It  is  to  be  noted  that  the  idea  of  recreation  had  dropped  even 
farther  from  the  expressed  aim  of  this  work,  and  that  the 
dominant  idea  was  training  of  the  will.  A  still  broader  claim 
for  the  subject  as  a  developer  of  the  faculties  is  shown  in  the 
following  quotation  from  a  paper  read  before  the  National  Edu- 
cation Association  in  1895  by  Miss  N.  D.  Kimberland  of  Detroit: 
"  There  are  also  certain  specific  benefits  traceable  to  special 
sections  and  methods  of  the  work.  Among  these  I  would  place, 
first,  alertness,  precision,  and  prompt  execution  of  voluntary 
movements  that  we  obtain  through  military  execution   of  the 

"Proc.  N.  E.  A.,  1892,  371. 
"Ibid.,  1895,  314- 


76  Social  Factors  Affecting  Special  Supervision 

drills.  The  exactness  and  rapidity  of  this  form  of  r.io/Miient 
have  a  special  value  in  developing  concentrated  attention,  v/hich, 
becoming  a  habit,  must  prove  of  use  in  the  parallel  development 
of  mental  life."^^ 

These  are  fairly  typical  of  the  tendencies  in  this  connection 
during  this  period,  as  judged  by  the  addresses  of  the  teachers. 
The  health  and  pleasure  of  the  individual  child  becomes  in  a 
way  secondary  to  the  formal  training  of  the  faculties,  chief  of 
which  is  the  will.  In  1903  Mr.  William  O.  Krohn  of  Chicago 
set  forth  this  ideal  thus :  "  There  is  nothing  so  important,  nothing 
so  significant,  nothing  so  vital  in  the  whole  scheme  of  educa- 
tion as  the  development  of  the  proper  self-control,  self-direction, 
and  co-ordination  of  muscular  activity.  Our  whole  purpose  in 
our  work  is  to  make  the  child's  organism  intelligent  in  its  every 
activity.  .  .  .  No  matter  to  what  school  of  physical  educa- 
tion we  belong,  our  own  common  purpose  and  aim  is  so  to  fit, 
so  to  adjust,  so  to  train  the  body  of  the  child  that  it  will  obey 
every  behest  of  the  will.^* 

Dr.  Harris  early  recognized  this  tendency  and  in  his  char- 
acteristic way  called  attention  to  it  in  an  address  before  the 
National  Education  Association  in  1891 :  "  It  seems  to  me  that 
it  has  been  one  of  the  great  defects  in  physical  education  that 
it  has  been  brought  into  the  schools  and  made  a  will  training 
so  that  the  child,  who  has  been  exhausting  his  nervous  energy 
all  the  morning  at  his  lessons  in  school,  is  then  called  upon  to 
exhaust  it  even  more  rapidly  in  such  forms  of  exercise,  instead 
of  relaxing  as  he  ought  to.  The  child  must  stand  up,  he  must 
not  lean;  he  must  pay  attention  and  imitate  precisely  motions 
prescribed.  This  is  a  strain  on  the  will  power,  and  calisthenics 
as  practiced  in  many  cases  exhausts  nervous  energy  faster  than 
a  class  exercise  in  Latin  or  Greek.     .      .      ."^^ 

Refraction  of  Demand  within  the  School 
From  this  survey  we  are  led  to  the  conclusion  that,  as  in  the 
case  of  the  other  subjects  under  discussion,  physical  education 
came  into  the  schools  as  a  result  of  outside  agitation  and  or- 
ganization.   This  outside  demand,  which  was  for  a  proper  recog- 

""  Ibid.,  1895,  947- 
"  Ibid.,  1903,  882. 
"/&«/.,  1891,357. 


Physical  Education  77 

nition  of  the  physical  needs  of  the  child  for  the  sake  of  health, 
was  refracted  by  the  school,  so  that  the  training  of  the  will 
came  to  receive  the  chief  emphasis  in  the  minds  of  many  of 
the  leaders.  It  is  interesting  to  note  in  this  connection  the 
present  agitation  for  school  hygiene  and  free  play. 

Administration 

As  in  the  case  of  the  other  subjects  the  responsibility  for 
this  work  for  the  most  part  was  placed  in  the  hands  of  special- 
ists, though  the  regular  teachers  have  borne  a  larger  share  in 
this  than  in  the  case  of  some  of  the  other  subjects,  as  manual 
training  and  domestic  science.^® 

Summary 

The  early  interest  in  physical  exercise  centered  around  work. 
This  was  followed  by  interest  in  military  drill  as  a  means  of 
providing  the  proper  exercise  while  at  the  same  time  furnishing 
a  form  of  training  valuable  for  purposes  of  defense. 

Interest  in  the  German  system  of  pure  gymnastics  which 
arose  about  1825,  was  soon  transferred  to  the  Fellenberg  move- 
ment. The  manual  labor  feature  of  this  movement  struck  a 
popular  chord  as  a  "  practical "  kind  of  exercise  for  a  student. 

The  failure  of  this  as  a  means  of  providing  suitable  exercise, 
and  the  growing  knowledge  of  the  human  body  through  the 
study  of  physiology,  led  to  a  demand  for  a  form  of  exercise 
suited  to  the  schoolroom.  The  system  of  Diocletian  Lewis  which 
claimed  this  advantage  was  rather  widely  adopted  in  the  early 
sixties. 

This  was  diverted  by  the  influence  of  the  War  which  again 
directed  attention  to  the  military  drill.  With  the  close  of  the 
War  interest  declined  until  the  early  eighties,  when  through  the 
organized  efforts  of  the  German  Turners,  assisted  by  certain 
others,  powerful  pressure  was  brought  to  bear  on  the  schools 
which  resulted  in  the  widespread  recognition  of  the  subject  in 
the  early  nineties. 

Within  the  schoolroom  this  demand  was  so  interpreted  that 
special  attention  was  directed  to  formal  gymnastics  as  a  means 
of  strengthening  the  will. 

"See  Chapter  XI. 


CHAPTER  VII 
PENMANSHIP 

Early  Religious  Sanction  for  Reading  and  Writing  Schools 

The  student  of  educational  history  in  this  country  is  aware 
of  the  close  connection  between  the  lower  schools  and  the 
church.  Indeed  the  law  of  Massachusetts  which  made  provision 
for  these  schools,  plainly  sets  forth  the  religious  sanction  in 
the  following  terms :  "  It  being  one  chief  project  of  the  old 
deluder,  Satan,  to  keep  men  from  the  knowledge  of  the  Scrip- 
tures, as  in  former  times  by  keeping  them  in  an  unknown  tongue, 
so  in  these  latter  times  by  persuading  from  the  use  of  tongues, 
that  so  at  least  the  true  sense  and  meaning  of  the  original 
might  be  clouded  by  false  glosses  of  saint  seeming  deceivers; 
that  learning  may  not  be  buried  in  the  grave  of  our  fathers  in 
the  church  and  Commonwealth,  the  Lord  assisting  our  endeavors. 
It  is  therefore  ordered  that  every  township  in  this  jurisdiction, 
after  the  Lord  hath  increased  them  to  the  number  of  fifty  house- 
holders, shall  then  forthwith  appoint  one  within  their  town  to 
teach  all  such  children  as  resort  to  him,  to  write  and  to  read."^ 

This  was  copied  in  its  entirety  in  the  Connecticut  Code  of 
1650,^  and  represents  the  typical  point  of  view  concerning  ele- 
mentary instruction  during  the  early  period. 

Writing  Less  Important  than  Reading 

However,  it  seems  apparent  that  of  these  two  subjects  in  the 
curriculum  reading  was  considered  the  more  important.  This 
is  not  surprising  in  view  of  the  larger  importance  of  reading 
in  connection  with  the  interpretation  of  the  Scriptures.  In  sup- 
port of  this  assumption  the  following  extract  from  the  Con- 
necticut Code  of   1650  is  submitted :  "  It  is  therefore  ordered 

'  Order  of  General  Court,  1647,  quoted  in  Barnard's  American  Journal 
of  Education,  II,  327. 
^Barnard's  American  Journal  of  Education,  IV,  661. 

78 


Penmanship  7  9 

by  the  court  and  the  authority  thereof,  that  the  selectmen  of 
every  town  in  the  several  precincts  and  quarters  where  they 
dwell,  shall  have  a  vigilant  eye  over  their  brethren  and  neigh- 
bors, to  see,  first,  that  none  of  them  shall  sufifer  such  barbarism 
in  any  of  their  families,  as  not  to  endeavor  to  teach  by  them- 
selves or  others  their  children  and  apprentices  so  much  learning 
as  may  enable  them  perfectly  to  read  the  English  tongue.  .  .  . 
Also,  that  all  masters  of  families,  do,  once  a  week,  at  least, 
catechise  their  children  and  servants,  .  .  .  and  further  that 
all  parents  and  masters  do  breed  and  bring  up  their  children 
and  apprentices  in  some  honest  and  lawful  calling,  labor  or 
employment."^ 

This  was  practically  unchanged  for  one  hundred  and  fifty 
years.* 

It  is  significant  that  in  this  order  no  mention  is  made  of 
instruction  in  writing.  The  full  text  is  very  explicit  in  stipu- 
lations relative  to  instruction  in  reading  in  the  catechism  and 
the  selection  of  an  honest  trade  or  calling.  It  does  not  seem 
reasonable  to  suppose  that  the  reference  to  writing  was  omitted 
by  accident.  It  is  more  reasonable  to  conclude  that  writing  as 
such  was  not  considered  of  importance  in  this  connection.  An- 
other indication  of  this  is  found  in  the  testimony  of  Wm.  B. 
Fowle,  who  in  writing  of  his  own  school  days  in  Boston  during 
the  latter  part  of  the  eighteenth  century,  said,  "As  no  provision 
was  made  in  the  reading  school  for  any  exercise  in  writing, 
no  such  exercise  was  required  there;  and  the  immense  advan- 
tage from  having  the  teacher  able  to  give  instruction  in  pen- 
manship as  well  as  in  orthography  and  composition  was  wholly 
lost.  The  writer  passed  through  an  entire  course  in  the  Boston 
schools,  and  was  never  required  to  write  a  sentence  or  word  of 
English."^* 

Traditional  Means  of  Instruction  in  Writing 

The  colonists  had  the  sanction  of  tradition  for  depending 
upon  the  writing  master  for  instruction  in  this  subject.  In 
England  the  writing  school  was  quite  common  during  the  seven- 

'  Connecticut  Code  of  1650,  quoted  in  Barnard's  American  Journal  of 
Education,  XXVIII,  171. 
*  Ibid.,  170. 
"Ibid..  V,  329. 


8o  Social  Factors  Affecting  Special  Supervision 

teenth  century.  Concerning  the  reason  for  this  isolation,  Brown 
says :  "  The  various  styles  of  penmanship  then  in  vogue  called 
for  some  considerable  training  and  attainment  of  a  technical 
sort  on  the  part  of  the  teacher."" 

The  fact  that  the  appliances  used  in  writing  were  not  always 
to  be  found  in  the  regular  schoolroom  no  doubt  contributed  much 
to  the  continual  separation  of  these  phases  of  instruction.  By 
the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century  the  practice  suggested  in 
the  following  quotation  was  quite  common  in  the  English  gram- 
mar schools.  "Though  the  teaching  of  children  to  write  a  fair 
hand  doth  properly  belong  to  writing  masters,  as  professors  of 
that  art,  yet  the  care  of  seeing  that  all  they  write  in  paper  books 
and  loose  papers  by  way  of  exercise  be  neatly  done,  doth  per- 
tain to  every  schoolmaster.  .  .  .  The  usual  way  of  scholars 
learning  to  write  at  the  county  grammar  schools,  is  to  entertain 
an  honest  and  skillful  penman  that  he  may  constantly  come  and 
continue  with  about  a  month  or  six  weeks  together  every  year, 
in  which  time  commonly  everyone  may  learn  to  write  legibly."^ 

Commercial  Sanction 

This  practice  developed  ultimately  into  the  plan  of  having  a 
regular  and  continuous  instruction  in  writing  in  connection  with 
the  other  schooling.  This  did  not  come  about  however  until 
there  was  a  pressure  demanding  it,  which  was  strong  enough 
to  break  down  the  barriers  of  tradition.  This  pressure  came 
as  a  result  of  the  increased  interest  in  commercial  activity.  In 
regard  to  this  change  Brown  says :  "  The  eighteenth  century 
gave  more  and  more  countenance  to  this  innovation  partly 
because  of  the  growing  influence  of  the  commercial  class  and 
partly  we  may  believe  because  of  some  increase  of  hospitality 
toward  studies  not  distinguished  by  tradition.  The  new  studies 
(writing  and  arithmetic)  represented  the  intrusion  of  a  different 
view  of  the  function  of  the  school;  they  smacked  of  trade. 
.  .  .  It  was  not  for  the  perfecting  of  human  character  but 
the  training  up  of  men  to  some  sort  of  efficiency  and  public 
usefulness.  .  .  .  The  enlargement  of  commercial  operations, 
the  growth  of  American  shipping,  particularly  that  engaged  in 

'Making  of  Our  Middle  Schools,  ig. 

'  Hoole,  Scholastic  Discipline,  1659,  quoted  in  Barnard's  American  Jour- 
nal of  Education,  I,  315. 


Penmanship  8i 

the  whaling  industry,  and  the  rapid  extension  of  the  zone  of 
regular  settlements  had  much  to  do  with  the  demand  for  such 
studies  as  these."* 

This  sanction  was  present  in  the  recommendation  of  Franklin. 
Washington  also  gave  expression  to  this  in  his  recommendations 
of  a  course  of  instruction  for  the  orphan  and  poor  children  in 
the  Alexandria  Academy.  In  his  proposal  for  endowing  this 
school  which  was  submitted  in  1785,  he  said :  "  It  was  my  in- 
tention to  apply  the  latter  (the  interest  on  the  principal  sum) 
to  the  sole  purpose  of  education,  and  of  that  sort  of  education 
as  would  be  most  extensively  useful  to  people  of  the  lower  class 
of  citizens,  vis.,  reading,  writing  and  arithmetic,  so  as  to  fit  them 
for  mechanical  purposes."* 

Double-Headed  System  of  Instruction 
With  the  increased  attention  to  the  practical  value  of  writing 
came  more  definite  provision  for  instruction  in  this  subject.  The 
public  assumed  a  larger  share  of  the  responsibility  in  this  work. 
In  the  reorganization  of  the  Boston  schools  in  1789,  at  which 
time  the  "  double-headed  system  was  established,"^'^  provision 
was  made  for  equal  emphasis  on  reading  and  writing,  "  so  that 
the  same  pupils  attended  a  writing  school  in  one  building  half 
the  day  and  a  reading  school  in  a  different  building,  at  a  con- 
siderable distance,  and  under  a  different  and  independent  teacher, 
the  other  half.  Each  reading  school  had  its  corresponding  writ- 
ing school.  .  .  .  Even  when  the  town  built  new  school 
houses  the  upper  room  was  devoted  to  the  reading  school  and 
the  lower  to  the  writing,  the  boys  and  girls  alternating  as 
before."^^ 

With  this  reorganization  the  regular  writing  teachers  were 
denied  the  privilege  of  maintaining  private  writing  schools  on 
the  side.  Although  this  did  not  prove  to  be  a  permanent  pro- 
hibition it  indicated  the  tenor  of  the  public  mind  on  the  subject." 
The  division  of  responsibility  in  this  double-headed  system 
was  productive  of  much  waste  as  was  indicated  in  the  foregoing 


*  Making  of  Our  Middle  Schools,  I34-I35- 

'Quoted  in  Barnard's  American  Journal  of  Education,  XXVIII,  313. 

"  Dexter,  History  of  Education  in  United  States.  427. 

"  Fowle,  quoted  in  Barnard's  American  Journal  of  Education,  V,  328. 

"/biU,  V,  330. 


82  Social  Factors  Affecting  Special  Supervision 

quotations  from  Fowle.  The  teachers  looked  after  their  own 
subject  only  and  after  a  little  were  selected  on  the  basis  of  the 
narrowest  range  of  ability.  Concerning  this  narrow  range  of 
qualification  for  teachers  in  Boston,  Fowle  said :  "  The  first 
three  reading  masters  were  good  penmen,  .  .  .  but  this  was 
not  afterwards  considered  an  essential  qualification  of  the  read- 
ing master,  and  when  forty  years  afterward  a  change  was  pro- 
posed in  the  schools,  by  which  the  "  double-headed  "  system  was 
to  be  reduced  to  a  single  head,  the  reading  masters  were  found 
as  incompetent  to  teach  penmanship  as  the  writing  masters  had 
always  been  to  teach  anything  else."^^ 

It  is  of  interest  to  compare  this  situation  with  the  present 
one  in  regard  to  the  relative  inability  of  the  regular  teacher  to 
teach  the  subjects  which  have  been  recently  introduced  into  one 
curriculum,  such  as  music,  drawing,  and  manual  training.  The 
question  arises  as  to  whether  or  not  the  time  will  come  when 
the  regular  teacher  will  be  expected  to  bear  the  responsibility 
of  instruction  in  these  subjects. 

Pressure  Brought  to  Bear  on  Regular  Teachers 

With  the  new  emphasis  which  was  placed  on  the  common 
schools  under  the  Horace  Mann  regime  an  increased  demand 
was  placed  upon  the  regular  teacher  to  assume  the  responsibility 
for  instruction  in  writing  as  well  as  in  other  subjects.  The 
school  reports  of  this  period  are  full  of  reference  to  the  subject. 
Apparently  no  opportunity  was  neglected  to  give  criticism  for 
poor  work  or  credit  for  good  work  in  this  subject.  The  fol- 
lowing are  typical  quotations: 

"  The  committee  have  noticed  with  much  regret  that  the  prac- 
tice of  writing  has  become  quite  uncommon  undoubtedly  on 
account  of  the  impression  with  many  teachers  that  it  is  a  branch 
that  can  be  taught  with  but  little  success.  .  .  .  That  writing 
is  a  branch  of  education  unlike  most  others  introduced  into  our 
schools,  requiring  great  care  and  attention  in  its  prosecution  to 
insure  success,  your  committee  will  not  deny,  but  that  it  may 
be  taught  with  a  good  degree  of  success  in  our  district  school, 
has  in  one  instance  been  fully  proved  to  your  committee  the 
past  season."^* 


''  Ibid.,  V,  329- 

"  Report  of  Peru,  Massachusetts,  7th  Annual  Report  of  Horace  Mann, 
195- 


Penmanship  83 

"  With  respect  to  writing,  which  in  some  of  the  largest  schools 
has  not  been  on  an  equality  of  attainment  with  the  others,  the 
committee  suggests  the  propriety  of  establishing  a  requisition 
that  a  specific  time  each  day  be  appropriated  to  this  important 
acquirement.  The  fear  is  now  entertained  that  it  is  now  more 
generally  neglected  than  any  of  the  branches  required  to  be 
taught  in  the  Public  Schools.  While  other  branches  now  as 
necessary  have  received  the  attention  which  ought  to  have  been 
applied  here."^^ 

Again : 

"A  number  of  the  winter  schools  have  exhibited  fine  specimens 
of  writing.  The  committee  believe  that  a  due  attention  to  this 
part  of  education  in  Public  Schools  without  materially  inter- 
fering with  other  studies  may  supercede  the  necessity  of  these 
common  and  expensive  schools  which  are  devoted  exclusively  to 
writing."^* 

"  It  is  a  well  known  fact  that  many  people  have  acquired  their 
fortune  by  the  use  of  the  pen,  even  when  their  literary  attain- 
ments were  decidedly  below  mediocrity.  This  is  sufficient  reason 
why  the  art  should  be  taught  indisputably."^^ 

In  the  last  statements  the  economic  appeal  is  set  forth  very 
clearly. 

Decline  of  the  Writing  Schools 

These  quotations  suggest  the  means  used  in  placing  the  burden 
of  writing  instruction  on  the  shoulders  of  the  regular  teacher. 

Meanwhile  the  simplification  and  standardization  of  letter 
forms  and  the  improved  systems  of  copy  books  contributed 
much.  Text-book  publishers  were  quick  to  respond  to  the  situa- 
tion and  vied  with  each  other  in  producing  elaborate  guides  to 
the  teacher  in  the  form  of  manuals  of  instruction.  W^ith  this 
came  the  gradual  disappearance  of  the  writing  school  as  an 
adjunct  of  the  public  schools.  Relative  to  this  change,  Ellsworth, 
a  famous  penmanship  teacher  of  the  third  quarter  of  the  last 
century  said,  in  1878:  "At  this  day  the  ancient  race  of  writing 
masters  is  almost  extinct,  having  retreated  to  the  back  woods 
so  far  that  civilization  is  left  to  perpetuate  the  'Art  of  Arts  ' 
by  means  more  scientific.    The  schools  of  the  land  have  absorbed 

"Report  of  Pittsfield,  Massachusetts,  3d  Annual  Report  of  Horace 
Mann,  318. 

"Report  of  Rochester,  Massachusetts,  4th  Annual  Report  of  Horace 
Mann,  435. 

"Report  of  Luxenburg,  Massachusetts,  6th  Annual  Report  of  Horace 
Mann,  87. 


84  Social  Factors  Affecting  Special  Supervision 

the  subject  and  the  *  poor  overworked  teacher '  is  looked  to  to 
impart  the  dexterity  in  the  use  of  the  pen  and  dispense  the 
philosophy  of  an  experience  perhaps  not  yet  her  own,"" 

Attitude  of  School 

Thus  it  is  seen  that  penmanship  coming  into  the  curriculum 
as  it  did  much  earlier  than  the  other  subjects  under  discussion 
has  had  a  much  larger  time  in  which  to  become  fused  with  the 
fundamentals  of  the  course  of  study.  With  the  pressure  created 
by  changed  economic  and  social  conditions,  the  teacher  was 
forced  to  take  specific  account  of  the  writing  of  tlie  children 
and  ultimately  to  assume  the  instruction  in  this  subject  as  one 
of  the  primal  duties  for  which  the  school  was  maintained.  A 
moment's  consideration  of  the  comparative  effect  of  the  inability 
on  the  part  of  a  teacher  to  pass  an  examination  in  writing 
with  inability  to  pass  an  examination  in  music  or  drawing  will 
give  an  additional  measure  of  the  degree  of  fusion  which  has 
taken  place  in  respect  to  this  subject. 

The  implications  have  been  so  clear  in  regard  to  the  end  to 
be  attained,  and  the  means  of  checking  up  so  numerous  that 
the  popular  will  in  the  matter  has  not  been  deflected  as  in  the 
case  of  some  of  the  other  subjects. 

The  fact  that  the  teacher  had  to  read  the  writing  of  the  child 
in  the  course  of  instruction  no  doubt  has  also  contributed  much 
to  the  clear  cut  emphasis  on  the  practical  side  of  penmanship. 
At  any  rate  educators  have  not  attempted  to  interpret  instruc- 
tion in  writing  on  the  basis  of  its  intellectual  discipline,  but  they 
have  seriously  directed  their  efforts  toward  a  rational  interpre- 
tation of  the  demands  of  society  in  this  particular. 

Administration 
Since  the  early  organization  of  city  systems  of  schools,  writing 
has  frequently  been  placed  in  charge  of  a  special  supervisor. 
The  schools  of  Cincinnati  employed  a  specialist  for  penmanship 
as  early  as  1841.^*  However,  the  number  of  these  specialists 
has  always  been  small  compared  with  the  number  of  specialists 
in  music,  drawing  and  the  like,-"  and  their  methods  have  been 

^  Essentials  of  Penmanship,  1878,  2. 

"Shotwell,  Schools  of  Cincinnati,  171. 

"  See  tables  in  a  later  section,  Chapter  VIII. 


Penmanship  85 

such  that  the  teacher  has  been  forced  to  carry  a  large  share 
of  the  responsibiHty  in  this  connection. 

Summary 

The  early  reading  and  writing  schools  were  established  in 
this  country  with  a  religious  sanction.  .  With  this  emphasis  writ- 
ing received  less  attention  than  was  given  to  reading  and  was 
taught  for  the  most  part  in  private  venture  writing  schools  in 
charge  of  "  writing  masters." 

With  the  growth  in  commercial  activity  in  the  latter  part  of 
the  eighteenth  century  increased  attention  was  given  to  penman- 
ship and  with  this  practical  commercial  sanction  came  a  demand 
for  better  public  provision  for  instruction  in  this  subject. 

Although  there  was  a  response  to  this  demand  the  instruc- 
tion was  still  kept  separate  in  the  form  of  reading  schools  and 
writing  schools. 

The  recognition  of  the  waste  in  this  extreme  specialization 
coupled  with  the  continued  demand  for  penmanship  instruction, 
brought  such  a  pressure  that  the  division  of  labor  was  broken 
down  and  the  subject  became  fused  with  the  other  fundamental 
subjects  of  the  common  school  curriculum,  the  burden  of  in- 
struction falling  upon  the  regular  teacher. 

Owing  to  the  clear  implication  involved,  the  will  of  the  people 
was  not  refracted  in  the  schoolroom  as  was  found  to  be  the 
case  in  the  other  subjects. 


CHAPTER  VIII 
DISTRIBUTION  OF  SPECIALISTS 

The  Spread  of  the  Practice  of  Employing  Supervisors 

In  tracing  the  introduction  of  special  subjects  into  the  public 
school  system,  it  has  been  apparent  that  in  practically  every 
case  this  has  been  accompanied  by  an  addition  to  the  teaching 
force  in  the  form  of  a  special  teacher  or  special  supervisor. 

At  the  time  of  the  first  experimentation  this  was  a  practical 
necessity,  on  account  of  the  fact  that  the  regular  teachers,  except 
in  isolated  cases,  had  neither  the  time,  technical  skill,  nor  dis- 
position to  undertake  the  new  subjects.  In  the  earlier  chapters 
repeated  examples  have  been  given  of  the  neglect  of  these  sub- 
jects by  the  regular  teacher  when  additions  were  made  to  the 
course  of  study  without  a  corresponding  provision  for  instruc- 
tion. Hence  the  employment  at  public  expense  of  special  teach- 
ers or  supervisors  has  quite  uniformly  followed  the  introduction 
of  these  subjects.  Moreover  this  has  been  in  complete  accord 
with  the  tendency  of  the  time  toward  the  further  division  of 
labor  in  all  lines  of  human  activity. 

Method  of  Distribution 

It  is  proposed  in  this  chapter  to  trace  in  some  detail  the 
spread  of  the  practice  of  employing  specialists  in  this  con- 
nection in  cities  of  eight  thousand  inhabitants  and  over.  In 
the  organization  of  this  material  all  cities  reporting  the  employ- 
ment of  specialists  were  tabulated  in  accordance  with  their  loca- 
tion, the  classification  of  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Education 
being  used.  These  cities  were  again  classified  according  to  size, 
the  grouping  adopted  by  the  Committee ;  on  Salaries  which  re- 
ported to  the  National  Council  of  Education  in  1905,  being 
used.^  These  groups  are:  Class  I,  cities  of  a  population  of 
1,000,000  or  over;  Class  II,  200,000  to  1,000,000;  Class  III,  100,- 

^  Report  of  Committee  on  Salary,  Tenure  and  Pensions  of  Teachers. 
86 


Distribution  of  Specialists  87 

000  to  200,000;  Class  IV,  50,000  to  100,000;  Class  V,  30,000 
to  50,000;  Class  VI,  20,000  to  30,000;  Class  VII,  15,000  to 
20,000;  Class  VIII,  10,000  to  15,000;  Class  IX,  8,000  to  10,000. 
In  doing  this  it  was  necessary  not  only  to  classify  cities  with 
special  teaching  and  supervision,  but  it  was  also  necessary  to 
so  arrange  all  the  cities  of  the  United  States  for  each  period 
studied,  in  order  to  gain  a  relative  idea  of  the  prevalence  of  the 
practice.  In  all  these  classifications  the  estimated  census  figures 
used  in  the  reports  of  the  Commissioner  of  Education  were 
followed. 

Sources  of  Information 

The  early  reports  of  the  Commissioner  of  Education  show  no 
separate  column  for  specialists ;  however,  they  were  indicated  by 
footnotes  in  the  lists  of  regular  teachers.  The  first  separate 
classification  for  teachers  of  music,  drawing  and  penmanship 
was  made  in  1874-75.  This  material  serves  as  the  basis  of  this 
comparative  treatment,  which  is  followed  by  the  data  for  1884-85 
and  of  1908.  In  the  recent  reports  of  the  Commissioner  of 
Education  this  material  is  grouped  under  general  headings, 
which  do  not  admit  the  detailed  treatment  necessary  in  this  study. 
Consequently  a  new  source  of  information  was  essential  for 
the  year  1908.  This  data  has  been  gathered  from  (i)  the 
Vaile  School  Directories  for  1908,  an  annual  trade  list  of  the 
school  officials  of  the  United  States ;  (2)  personal  inquiry  by 
means  of  a  return  postal  card,  which  supplemented  the  infor- 
mation found  in  the  Vaile  Directory.  Inasmuch  as  many  city 
reports  distinguished  domestic  science  and  sewing  it  has  seemed 
wise  to  treat  them  separately ;  hence  the  following  tables  include 
the  distribution  of  specialists  in  music,  drawing,  penmanship, 
manual  training,  domestic  science,  sewing,  and  physical  edu- 
cation. 

There  are  certain  sources  of  error  in  every  study  of  this 
nature,  due  to  inaccuracies  in  original  reports  and  to  clerical 
errors  in  tabulation.  However,  it  is  believed  that  in  the  case 
of  this  investigation  these  are  almost  negligible.  The  data  col- 
lected by  the  government  are  certainly  fairly  reliable.  Although 
the  Vaile  Directories  are  not  absolutely  accurate,  the  data  were 
sufficiently  reliable  to  command  a  ready  sale  at  a  stiff  figure  for 
commercial   purposes.     The  supplementary   questionaire  called 


88  Social  Factors  Affecting  Special  Supervision 

for  facts,  not  opinion  or  guess  work,  as  can  be  seen  by  reference 
to  the  copy  in  the  appendix.  Definite  answers  were  received 
from  63  per  cent  of  the  one  hundred  and  ninety  inquiries  which 
were  sent  out.  On  the  whole  it  seems  safe  to  say  that  the 
following  tables  represent  a  reliable  statement  of  the  situation 
for  all  practical  purposes  in  regard  to  the  points  in  question. 


Distribution  of  Specialists 


89 


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94  Social  Factors  Affecting  Special  Supervision 


TABLE  6.     SUMMARY  FOR  1892 
Distribution  of  Specialists  in  Physical  Education 

North  South  South  North  United 

Atlantic       Atlantic        Central         Central        Western         States 
States  States  States  States  States        as  a  whole 

Class  Ph.  Ph.  Ph.  Ph.  Ph.  Ph. 

Cities  Ed.  Cities  Ed.   Cities  Ed.  Cities  Ed.  Cities  Ed.  Cities  Ed. 
18  46         6         6 

I        II  49  5  5 

I          4  I       26  2  5 

5  25  2  2 

10  20  7  4 

3  83s 

I  641 

I  641 


Combining  irrespective  of  size  of  cities 
205       23       29         4       42  I      187       34       29 

Percentage  of  cities  emploj'ing  specialists  irrespective  of  size 
Ph.  Ed.  II. 21  13-77  2.38  18.18  44.82  15.24 

Percentage  of  cities  employing  specialists  irrespective  of  location 
Class:  987654321 

Ph.  Ed.  9.80     8.34    12.12      7.69    25.85    28.94    42.85    53.33    33.33 

Percentage  of  cities  employing  specialists  combined  in  three  groups 
Classes:  9,  8&7  6,  5&4  3,2&i 

Ph.  Ed.  9.69  19-25  46.87 

TABLE  6  represents  the  situation  in  1892  relative  to  the  employment 
of  specialists  of  physical  education  and  corresponds  to  the  tables  for 
the  other  subjects.  The  data  is  taken  from  the  report  of  the  Commis- 
sioner of  Education  of  that  year.*  Out  of  492  cities  considered,  75  or 
15.24  percent  reported  the  employment  of  a  specialist  in  physical  edu- 
cation. Attention  is  directed  to  the  fact  that  this  practice  was  followed 
in  a  larger  percentage  of  cities  in  the  Western  and  North  Central  States 
than  in  the  South  or  East.  Distribution  for  size  of  cities  indicates  that 
a  higher  percentage  of  cities  with  a  population  of  100,000  or  over  em- 
ployed specialists  in  physical  education  than  did  the  smaller  cities. 

♦  Commissioner  Report,   1891-92,  I,  582-89. 


2 

102 

10 

2 

131 

11 

1 

66 

8 

65 

5 

2 

5« 

15 

4 

38 

11 

I 

14 

6 

1 

15 

8 

3 

I 

3 

492 

75 

Distribution  of  Specialists 


95 


TABLE  7.     SUMMARY  FOR  1908 
Distribution  of  Specialists  in  Physical  Education 

North  South  South  North  United 

Atlantic       Atlantic        Central         Central        Western         States 
States  States  States  States  States        as  a  whole 


Class 


Ph. 


Ph. 


Ph. 


Ph. 


Ph. 


Ph. 


Cities  Ed.  Cities  Ed.  Cities  Ed.  Cities  Ed.  Cities  Ed.  Cities  Ed. 


43 
78 
28 
41 
30 
24 
10 
6 


262 


4 
9 

3 
15 
5 
9 
5 
3 


14 

17 

4 

6 

10 

4 


48 
58 
28 
41 
23 
10 

7 
9 


16 
1 1 

5 
3 
5 


Combining  irrespective  of  size  of  cities 
54       52  7        59         5     225        51        47 


2 

132 

15 

2 

173 

18 

2 

75 

9 

100 

24 

2 

73 

15 

2 

44 

20 

2 

25 

13 

I 

20 

14 

3 

2 

3 

645 

130 

Percentage  of  cities  employing  specialists  irrespective  of  size 
Ph,  Ed.         20.61  13-26  8.47  22.66  27.65  20.15 

Percentage  of  cities  employing  specialists  irrespective  of  location 
Class:  987654321 

Ph.  Ed.  11-36    10.40    12.00    24.00    20.54    45.45    52.00     70.00    66.66 

Percentage  of  cities  employing  specialists  combined  in  three  groups 
Classes:  9,  8  &  7  6,  5  &  4  3,  2  &  i 

Ph.  Ed.  11.05  27.18  60.41 

TABLE  7  represents  the  situation  in  1908  relative  to  the  emplo>nnent 
of  specialists  in  physical  education  and  corresponds  to  TABLE  6,  in 
implication.  Out  of  645  cities,  130  or  20.15  per  cent  reported  the  em- 
ployment of  specialists  in  physical  education.  These  figures  compared 
with  the  corresponding  ones  in  TABLE  6,  indicate  that  the  growth  of 
the  practice  within  the  intervening  period  of  sixteen  years  has  been 
relatively  small.  Distribution  for  location  indicates  less  variation  in 
the  different  sections  of  the  country  than  existed  in  1892.  Distribution 
for  size  of  cities  indicates  that  the  practice  is  still  for  the  most  part 
confined  to  the  large  cities. 


96  Social  Factors  Affecting  Special  Supervision 

Summary 

TABLE  8.     COMBINED  SUMMARY— 1908 
Percentage  of  Cities   Reporting  the  Employment  of  Specialists 

Music 85  .42 

Drawing 75  -81 

Penmanship 21. 39 

Manual  Training 43  -40 

Sewing 1 8  .  60 

Domestic  Science 30-07 

Physical  Education 20.15 

In  recent  years  there  has  been  a  striking  increase  in  the  num- 
ber of  cities  employing  specialists.  This  has  been  especially 
true  of  music,  drawing  and  manual  training.  Distribution  for 
the  location  of  the  cities  brings  out  the  fact  that  the  early  devel- 
opment of  the  practice  of  employing  specialists  has  been  largely 
confined  to  the  states  of  the  North  Atlantic  and  the  North  Cen- 
tral divisions.  Distribution  for  size  of  cities  indicates  that  the 
practice  has  for  the  most  part  started  in  the  larger  cities, 
extending  to  the  smaller  cities  later. 


CHAPTER  IX 
SALARIES 

The  information  in  regard  to  the  salaries  paid  to  the  speciaUsts 
throughout  the  country  has  been  secured  from  two  sources :  ( i ) 
The  Vaile  School  Directories  for  1908;^  (2)  personal  inquiry 
by  means  of  a  return  postal,  which  supplemented  the  informa- 
tion found  in  the  directory.- 

From  these  two  sources  definite  information  was  secured 
relative  to  the  salaries  paid  in  1908  to  specialists  in  music  in 
492  cities ;  drawing  in  420  cities ;  penmanship  in  1 19  cities ; 
manual  training  in  263  cities;  sewing  in  67  cities;  domestic 
science  in  171  cities;  and  physical  education  in  115  cities. 

The  response  to  the  publishers  of  the  directory  and  to  the 
personal  inquiry  which  supplemented  this  was  direct  from  the 
offices  of  the  school  superintendents  throughout  the  country. 
Consequently  it  seems  reasonable  to  suppose  that  the  informa- 
tion is  reliable. 

Method  of  Tabulation 

The  salaries  for  each  subject  were  distributed  as  to  location 
for  each  sex,  the  classification  of  the  United  States  Bureau  of 
Education  being  used.  For  purposes  of  tabulation  and  com- 
parison the  salaries  were  arranged  so  as  to  show  a  difference 
in  $50  units  only.  For  example,  salaries  of  $720,  $725,  $730, 
$740  were  grouped  together  under  the  single  head :  "  salary 
of  $700  to  $749." 

Provision  is  made  in  these  tables  for  a  regular  scale  of 
salaries  ranging  from  $100  to  $2,500  per  annum.  Salaries 
outside  of  these  limits  are  indicated  by  the  footnotes.  For 
purposes   of   comparison   the  median   has   been  chosen   as   the 

^An  Annual  Trade  List  of  School  Officials,  1908,  A.  S.  Barnes  &  Co., 
N.  Y. 
'  See  Appendix  I  for  Specimen  Card. 

97 


98  Social  Factors  Affecting  Special  Supervision 

safest  single  statement  of  salary.  It  has  seemed  advisable  to 
print  the  whole  distribution  tables  rather  than  to  omit  these 
and  submit  a  more  elaborate  statement  of  statistical  interpre- 
tation. 


Salaries 


99 


TABLE  9.     SALARIES  FOR  MUSIC  SPECIALISTS 


Men 

Women 

Annual 

8^ 

il 

"0 

"2 

1 

0 
"S  s 

>* 

Mbn 

AND 

Salary 

>*■*» 

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^•1 

1  § 

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s 

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■^'^ 

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^Q 

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■*l 

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r 

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|-i 

0 

3-^ 

1^ 

r 

|-. 

1 

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1 

I 

I 

159-199 

200 

I 

I 

I 

1 

2 

250 

300 

2 

2 

2 

350 

I 

1 

2 

2 

3 

400 

2 

2 

I 

I 

2 

4 

450 

2 

3 

4 

I 

3 

I 

10 

13 

500 

3 

4 

15 

3 

7 

25 

29 

550 

I 

2 

4 

2 

10 

17 

19 

600 

3 

I 

8 

14 

I 

11 

31 

39 

650 

4 

11 

4 

17 

I 

35 

39 

700 

6 

7 

8 

I 

19 

2 

31 

38 

7S«> 

4 

7 

13 

10 

I 

24 

31 

800 

7 

I 

2 

17 

12 

5 

7 

2 

27 

44 

8so 

2 

I 

4 

4 

7 

1 

12 

16 

900 

8 

1 

8 

I 

18 

6 

13 

2 

22 

40 

9SO 

2 

I 

2 

I 

6 

I 

I 

4 

1 

7 

13 

1 ,000 

14 

2 

8 

24 

5 

9 

3 

iS 

42 

1,050 

2 

2 

1 

2 

3 

5 

1 ,  100 

2 

I 

I 

4 

2 

I 

2 

5 

9 

1,150 

I 

I 

2 

2 

2 

4 

1 ,  200 

6 

I 

3 

I 

11 

4 

2 

2 

5 

3 

16 

27 

1,250 

3 

3 

3 

1,300 

5 

I 

6 

2 

2 

4 

10 

I.3SO 

I 

I 

2 

I 

1 

3 

1 ,400 

6 

I 

2 

9 

I 

I 

2 

II 

1.450 

I 

I 

I 

1,500 

5 

1 

I 

7 

1 

2 

2 

5 

I  2 

1.5SO 

1  ,600 

2 

1 

I 

4 

I 

I 

5 

1,650 

I 

1 

I 

1 ,  700 

2 

I 

3 

I 

I 

2 

5 

1.750 

1 ,800 

3 

I 

4 

I 

I 

5 

1,850 

X  ,900 

2 

2 

I 

I 

3 

1.950 

3,000 

3 

I 

4 

4 

2,050 

I 

I 

I 

2 ,  100 

I 

I 

I 

a.  150 

2,  200 

3,250 

2,300 

2,350 

2,400-2,449 

I 

I 

1 

3,450-2,499 

*2, 500-2, 549 

1 

2 

3 

3 

Ad 

'ediar 

1  Salary,  $ 

1,009. 

37 

-T 

ledian  Sal 

ary, 

5748., 

!8 

Median 
$827.84 

♦  Three  men  received  salaries  of  $3,600,  $4,000,  $4,500. 


100 


Social  Factors  Affecting  Special  Supervision 


TABLE  10.    SALARIES  FOR  DRAWING  SPECIALISTS.     1908 


Men 

Women 

Annual 

0 

2 

.s 

-2  5i 

1 

"^  K 

2 

.g 

Men 

AND 

Salary 

^1 

^1 

a:i 

5-§ 

^1 

^1 

^1 

Women 

1? 

^1 

^1 

2 

|3 

^Q 

-5:  ^ 

§'5 

|5 

2 

Total 

S: 

^ 

<A 

1 

^^ 

K 

^ 

1^ 

(^ 

1 

^ 

(^ 

$ioo-i49 

150-199 

200 

I 

I 

I 

250 

300 

I 

I 

2 

2 

3 

3SO 

2 

I 

3 

3 

400 

I 

I 

3 

3 

4SO 

I 

I 

2 

I 

3 

6 

II 

13 

50c 

I 

I 

9 

- 

7 

20 

21 

5  SO 

I 

I 

7 

2 

7 

17 

18 

600 

16 

I 

9 

2 

29 

29 

650 

II 

7 

1 1 

I 

30 

30 

700 

20 

3 

13 

2 

39 

39 

750 

2 

2 

9 

I 

9 

19 

21 

800 

3 

2 

5 

II 

I 

14 

3 

30 

35 

850 

I 

I 

6 

13 

I 

20 

21 

900 

I 

I 

13 

4 

14 

3 

34 

35 

95° 

I 

I 

2 

2 

2 

2 

I 

7 

9 

1 ,000 

5 

I 

I 

3 

I 

11 

13 

6 

4 

23 

34 

1,050 

I 

I 

2 

2 

2 

2 

6 

8 

1 ,  100 

2 

I 

3 

8 

4 

3 

IS 

18 

1,150 

1 ,  200 

2 

I 

I 

4 

9 

3 

4 

4 

20 

24 

1,250 

I 

I 

2 

2 

1,300 

I 

I 

2 

I 

2 

2 

5 

7 

1,350 

I 

I 

I 

I  ,400 

3 

3 

2 

I 

3 

6 

I.4SO 

I 

I 

I 

I 

2 

1,500 

I 

I 

2 

I 

I 

2 

I 

7 

8 

1,550 

1 ,600 

I 

I 

I 

I 

2 

3 

1 ,  650 

1 .  700 

I 

I 

I 

I 

2 

1.750 

I 

I 

I 

1  .800 

I 

I 

I 

I 

I 

5 

I 

I 

6 

1.850 

1  ,900 

I 

I 

I 

I 

2 

1.950 

I 

I 

I 

2  ,000 

3 

3 

I 

I 

4 

2,050 

2  ,  100 

2.  ISO 

2  ,  200 

I 

I 

I 

2  ,  250 

2,300 

2. 350 

2  ,400 

2,450-2,499 

*a,SOO-2, 549 

2 

I 

3 

3 

3 

6 

Median  Salary,  $ 

[.116 

66 

il 

dedia 

nSal 

dry,  i 

807. 5 

0 

Median. 
$839.14 

♦  Three  men  received  salaries  of  $3,600,  $4,000,  $4,500. 


Salaries 


lOI 


TABLE   11      SALARIES  FOR  PENMANSHIP  SPECIALISTS.     1908 


Men 

Women 

Annual 

il 

"0 

il 

^1 

il 

|;2 

1 

"S  s 

a 

.?o 

Men 

AND 

Salary 

"^"r* 

■^•g 

"^-l 

C| 

•^•i 

5:1 

5-2 

(5 

Women 

5" 

r 

r 

"a 

^Q 
'S'.^ 
^ 

F 

¥ 

f3 

Total 

$100—149 

I 

I 

I 

2 

150-199 

2 

2 

200 

I 

1 

250 

300 

2 

2 

3SO 

400 

I 

1 

450 

I 

I 

I 

2 

500 

I 

2 

3 

3 

SSO 

I 

I 

I 

1 

3 

600 

1 

I 

4 

3 

7 

9 

650 

2 

I 

3 

1 

2 

3 

6 

700 

I 

2 

I 

2 

I 

6 

7 

7SO 

1 

I 

2 

3 

4 

800 

I 

4 

5 

2 

2 

I 

5 

10 

850 

4 

4 

I 

1 

5 

900 

I 

2 

3 

2 

I 

3 

6 

950 

1 

I 

2 

I 

I 

3 

I  ,000 

2 

I 

I 

I 

5 

2 

2 

I 

5 

10 

1  ,050 

I 

I 

2 

2 

1 ,  100 

3 

I 

1 

I 

6 

I 

I 

7 

1,150 

1 ,  200 

4 

I 

I 

2 

8 

I 

I 

2 

10 

1.250 

2 

2 

2 

1,300 

2 

I 

3 

3 

1,350 

I 

I 

I 

1 ,400 

2 

I 

I 

4 

4 

1.450 

I 

I 

I 

1,500 

3 

2 

5 

I 

I 

6 

1.550 

1 ,600 

I 

I 

2 

2 

1,650 

1 ,  700 

I 

I 

I 

1,750 

1  ,800 

I 

I 

I 

1,850 

1 ,900 

I 

I 

1 

1.950 

2,000 

I 

I 

I 

2,050 

2 ,  100 

2,150 

2 ,  200 

I 

I 

I 

2 ,  250 

3,300 

2,350 

2,400-2,459 

2,500-2 , 499 

M 

edian 

Salary,  $ 

,104. 

i6 

Median  Salary,  i 

766. t 

6 

Median. 
$920.83 

I02 


Social  Factors  Affecting  Special  Supervision 


TABLE  12.     SALARIES  FOR  MANUAL  TRAINING  SPECIALISTS.     1908 


M 

BN 

Women 

Annual 

-9'§ 

1 

1 

.s 

s:  § 

-§'§ 

1- 

2 

~  a 

a 

Men 

AND 

Salary 

^1 

^.1 

,s.| 

II 

a 

■^•1 

>5;? 

Women 

i3 
31 

00 

r 

2  5 

"0 

1- 

r' 

t3 

Total 

$100-149 

I 

I 

I 

150-199 

200 

250 

300 

350 

I 

I 

I 

400 

4SO 

Soo 

I 

I 

2 

2 

5  SO 

4 

4 

I 

3 

4 

8 

600 

2 

I 

3 

2 

I 

3 

6 

650 

I 

3 

4 

3 

4 

7 

II 

700 

6 

6 

3 

1 

I 

S 

1 1 

7SO 

I 

I 

I 

I 

4 

4 

I 

I 

6 

10 

800 

4 

10 

I 

15 

5 

I 

6 

21 

850 

I 

3 

I 

S 

I 

I 

I 

3 

8 

900 

4 

2 

I 

9 

16 

I 

I 

17 

9SO 

I 

4 

5 

I 

I 

2 

7 

1,000 

6 

2 

4 

12 

3 

27 

4 

2 

6 

33 

1,050 

I 

I 

2 

2 

2 

4 

I,XOO 

4 

2 

2 

2 

I 

II 

II 

1, 150 

I 

I 

I 

1,200 

5 

2 

3 

6 

2 

18 

I 

2 

3 

21 

i,»SO 

I 

I 

I 

3 

3 

1,360 

6 

I 

I 

8 

I 

I 

9 

1. 350 

I 

I 

I 

1,400 

6 

S 

2 

13 

I 

I 

14 

I.4SO 

I 

I 

I 

1,500 

7 

I 

2 

3 

13 

I 

I 

14 

i.SSo 

I 

I 

I 

1,600 

3 

2 

5 

10 

10 

1.650 

I 

4 

I 

6 

6 

1.700 

3 

I 

4 

4 

I.7SO 

I 

I 

I 

1,800 

3 

I 

4 

4 

1,850 

1,000 

2 

I 

3 

3 

I.9SO 

2,000 

2 

4 

I 

7 

7 

3,050 

2,100 

I 

I 

I 

3 

3 

3,150 

2,200 

2,250 

2,300 

I 

I 

I 

2,3SO 

2,400-2 ,449 

I 

I 

I 

2,449-2,500 

*2, 500-2, 549 

I 

I 

2 

2 

M 

'dian 

Sola? 

y.  $1 

138.63 

^7 

Jedian  Salary,  > 

5793- 

?3 

Median. 
$1,039-39 

♦Five  men  received  salaries  of  $2,600,  $3,000,  $3,500,  $4,000  and  $4,500. 


Salaries 


103 


TABLE  13. 


SALARIES  FOR  DOMESTIC  SCIENCE  AND  SEWING 
SPECIALISTS.     1908 


Do 

MESTic  Science 

Sewing 

|;2 

,  - 

.^ 

^ 

'  s; 

,  »• 

—          -»       1    , 

Annual 

s  S 

2 

2 

H 
-  s 

a 

.s 

Salary 

^•1 

^■1 

(0 

3^  ^ 

r 

Q 

2  = 

§."=' 

r 

"0 

£.0 

r 

r 

s 

ii 

"3 

$100-149 

I 

1 

150-199 

200 

250 

2 

2 

300 

I 

I 

350 

I 

I 

400 

I 

I 

2 

4SO 

2 

2 

4 

2 

I 

3 

500 

2 

3 

5 

3 

3 

S50 

I 

4 

s 

3 

I 

4 

600 

7 

4 

I 

5 

17 

2 

I 

I 

4 

650 

8 

s 

13 

4 

2 

I 

7 

700 

7 

s 

I 

10 

23 

8 

2 

10 

7SO 

3 

2 

2 

7 

14 

2 

I 

2 

5 

800 

5 

I 

4 

2 

12 

4 

4 

850 

I 

2 

I 

6 

I 

11 

1 

1 

2 

900 

3 

r 

4 

8 

I 

17 

4 

2 

2 

I 

9 

9SO 

2 

3 

I 

6 

I 

I 

1 ,000 

3 

2 

7 

4 

16 

I 

2 

3 

I  ,°5o 

I 

1 

I 

I 

1 ,  100 

I 

I 

I 

3 

I .  ISO 

1 ,  200 

I 

I 

2 

4 

8 

I 

I 

I 

3 

1 ,250 

1,300 

I. 35° 

I 

I 

2 

1 ,400 

2 

2 

I 

5 

I.4SO 

I ,  SCO 

2 

I 

3 

i.SSo 

I 

I 

1 ,600 

1,650 

1 ,  700 

I 

I 

I.7SO 

1 ,800 

1,850 

1 ,900 

I 

X 

1,950 

2  ,000 

2  ,050 

2 ,  too 

2  ,  150 

2  ,200 

2,250 

2,300 

2,350 

2  ,400 

I 

T 

2,450-2,499 

*2, 500-2, 549 

1 

I 

1 

I 

Medio 

n  Sala 

O'.  $8 

34.16 

Median  Salary,  $742.80 

*  One  woman  received  a  salary  of  $4,500. 


I04 


Social  Factors  Affecting  Special  Supervision 


TABLE  14.     SALARIES  FOR  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION  SPECIALISTS.     1908 


Annual 
Salary 


$1 10-149 
150-200 
200 
250 
300 
350 
400 
45° 
500 
550 
600 
650 
700 
750 
800 
850 

QOO 

I  ,000 
1,050 
I  ,  100 
I>  150 
I  ,  200 
I  ,  250 
1,300 

1.35° 
1 ,400 
1.450 
i.Soo 
I.S50 
1 ,600 
1,650 
1 ,  700 
1.750 

1 ,  800 
1,850 

1  ,  900 
1,950 

2  ,000 
2,050 
2, 100 
2,150 

2 ,  200 
2,250 
2 ,  300 
2.3SO 
2,350 

2 ,400—2 ,449 

2,450-2,499 

*2, 500-2, 599 


Men 

Women 

— 

— 

•^ 

.^ 

.      — 

1  -* 

,^ 

--* 

II 

'< 

II 

5:1 

H 

< 

•-> 

1 

II 

s  5 

II 

I/) 

2 

"0 

I 

I 

I 

I 

1 
I 
2 

I 

I 
I 
2 

I 

2 
I 

: 

I 

I 

I 

I 

I 

I 
I 

2 

I 

I 
I 

3 

4 

2 

I 

I 

I 
I 

I 
I 

I 

2 
2 

I 
I 
I 

I 
5 

7 

3 

I 
3 

4 

3 

I 

1 
2 
2 

2 

2 

3 

I 
I 
2 
5 

I 
3 

I 

I 
2 

I 
2 
2 
2 
2 

2 
2 

I 

I 

I 
I 

I 

I 

4 

4 
4 
4 
6 

2 

6 
5 
2 
2 
6 

I 

4 

2 

2 
I 

I 

I 

I 
I 

I 
I 

5 
2 

I 
2 

I 

3 

3 

I 

I 

I 

I 

I 

M 

edian 

Sala 

ry.  Si 

,141. 

66 

Mea 

ianl 

'alary 

,  $80 

8.33 

Men 

AND 

Women 
Total 


Median, 
$932.14 


♦  Two  men  received  salaries  of  $3,000,  one  man  $4,000  and  one  man  $4,500. 


Salaries 


I  OS 


TABLE  15.     COMBINED  SUMMARY  OF  MEDIAN  ANNUAL 
SALARIES.  1908 


Subject 


Music 

Drawing 

Penmanship 

Manual  Training.  . 
Physical  Education 
Domestic  Science. . 
Sewing 


Men 


$1,009.37 
1,116  .66 
1,104  -16 
1,138.63 
1,141  .66 


Women 


$748.38 
807 .50 
766.66 

795-83 
803.33 
804 .  16 
742 .80 


Men  and 
Women 


5827.84 
839-14 
920 .83 

-039-39 
932  .14 


The  distribution  of  salaries  in  the  foregoing  tables  reveals 
the  fact  that  male  specialists  are  paid  the  lowest  median  sal- 
aries in  music  and  the  highest  in  physical  education  and  manual 
training.  Women  receive  the  lowest  median  salaries  in  sewing 
and  music  and  the  highest  in  drawing  and  domestic  science. 
When  the  median  salaries  are  considered  irrespective  of  sex, 
it  is  found  that  the  salary  of  the  specialist  in  music  is  least, 
while  that  for  manual  training  is  highest.  However,  there  is 
a  striking  uniformity  of  price  irrespective  of  differences  in 
subject  for  each  sex,  which  indicates  that  the  salary  is  adjusted 
on  a  basis  of  sex  rather  than  on  the  basis  of  the  subject. 

The  most  common  salary  for  men  and  Avomen  is  found  in 
the  $1,000  to  $1,049  group. 


CHAPTER  X 

SEX  SELECTION 

The  information  upon  which  the  following  table  is  based  was 
secured  in  connection  with  the  information  in  salaries ;  conse- 
quently it  includes  data  for  the  same  number  of  specialists.  This 
data  were  distributed  by  subject  and  by  location,  the  classification 
used  by  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Education  being  used. 
The  gross  figures  are  given  in  section  (a)  of  Table  15;  section 
(b)  is  deduced  from  section  (a)  and  represents  the  percentage 
of  female  specialists  in  each  subject  and  in  each  section  of 
the  United  States. 

TABLE  16.     SEX  SELECTION.     1908 

(a).     Distribution  of  men  and  women,  by  subjects  and  location. 

(b).     Percentage  of  women  specialists,  distributed  by  subjects  and  location. 


(a) 

Music 

Drawing 

Penmanship. . .  . 
Manual  Training 

Sewing 

Domestic  Sci .  .  . 
Physical  Edu. .  . 

(b) 

Music 

Drawing 

Penmanship. .  .  . 
Manual  Training 

Sewing 

Domestic  Sci .  .  . 
Physical  Edu. . . 


North 

Atlantic 

States 


51.83 
80 .  10 
33-94 
30.  10 
100 . 00 
100 .00 
69.38 


South 

Atlantic 
States 


80.95 
76.47 
10  .  00 
21  .OS 
100 . 00 
100 . 00 
71.42 


South 
Central 
States 


76.66 

03-  10 

36.33 

1 1  .  1 1 

100 .00 

100 . 00 

o  .00 


North 
Central 
States 


70.43 
90  .06 
45- 00 
IS.  74 
100 .00 
100 .00 
40  .90 


Western 
States 


75-67 

86.48 

50  .00 

8.00 

100 .00 

100 .00 

41 .66 


United 

States 

as  a  whole 


492 
420 
119 
263 
67 
171 
115 


63  •  41 
8s  .00 
38.6s 
20  .  14 
100 .00 
100 .00 
54-78 


Attention  is  directed  to  the  fact  that  eighty-five  per  cent  of 
the  drawing  specialists  are  women  compared  with  sixty-three 
per  cent  for  music.  It  is  also  of  interest  to  note  that  there  are 
proportionally  fewer  women  in  music  in  the  North  Atlantic 
States  than  elsewhere.     Relatively  few  women  are  employed  as 

106 


Sex  Selection  107 

penmanship  specialists.  While  the  number  of  women  engaged 
in  manual  training  is  small  yet  the  percentage  for  women  is 
larger  in  this  subject  than  the  percentage  of  men  in  drawing; 
in  other  words  drawing  is  more  nearly  the  exclusive  field  of 
women  than  is  manual  training  of  men.  This  is  especially  true 
of  the  North  Atlantic  States. 


CHAPTER  XI 
DIVISION  OF  RESPONSIBILITY 

It  has  seemed  desirable  to  take  some  steps  in  order  to  ascer- 
tain within  certain  limits  the  division  of  responsibility  between 
the  specialists  and  the  regular  teachers.  With  this  in  mind  the 
following  inquiry  was  inaugurated. 

A  return  postal  card  was  submitted  to  a  group  of  specialists 
in  each  subject  selected  at  random.  This  random  selection  was 
secured  by  sending  an  inquiry  to  every  other  specialist  in  each 
subject  whose  city  appeared  on  the  classification  sheets  used  in 
preparing  the  tables  for  Chapters  VIII,  IX,  and  X.  The  in- 
formation card  read  thus : 

Subject  supervised Annual  Salary Sex 

Check  (X)  the  method  which  most  nearly  describes  yours. 
(  )  a.  Special  subject  taught  entirely  by  regular  teacher. 
(   )  b.     New  material  taught  by  yourself  or  assistants  at  regular  intervals, 

followed  by  a  drill  on  the  same  by  the  regular  teacher. 
(  )  c.     Special  subject  entirely  under  your  charge  and  all  lessons  given 

by  yourself  or  assistants. 

Three  hundred  and  forty-three  replies  were  received  from 
the  nine  hundred  and  ninety-eight  cards  sent  out.  Of  this  num- 
ber twenty-five  were  discarded  on  account  of  indefinite  response. 
There  remained  three  hundred  and  eighteen  replies  that  were 
clearly  answered.  These  were  distributed  as  follows :  eighty- 
three  represented  specialists  in  music ;  eighty-six  in  drawing ; 
eighteen  in  penmanship ;  twenty- four  in  physical  education ;  fifty- 
eight  in  manual  training;  thirty-three  in  domestic  science  and 
sixteen  in  sewing.  It  is  thus  seen  that  the  returns  were  related 
somewhat  closely  to  the  number  of  specialists  in  each  field. 

These  answers  for  each  subject  were  thus  distributed  for 
method  and  size  of  cities. 

io8 


Division  of  Responsibility 


109 


TABLE  17.     SHOWING  DIFFERENCE  IN  DIVISION  OF 
RESPONSIBILITY.   1910 


(I) 

Size  of  City 

Plan 

Music 

Drawing 

Penmanship 

Physical 
Education 

A.     B. 

c. 

A. 

B. 

C. 

A. 

B.    C. 

A.     B.   C. 

8-  10,000 

8 

2 

I 

6 

3 

I 

2 

10—  15,000 

17 

2 

I 

19 

2 

4      I 

I 

15—  20 ,000 

I      10 

I 

6 

I 

I       I 

20—  30  ,000 

2        7 

I 

9 

I 

2 

I 

I     I 

30-  50,000 
50-100,000 

3        6 
2        9 

2 

2 

14 
6 

I 

3 

I 

2 

3 

100-200 ,000 

2        2 

I 

I 

I 

3      I 

200-1 ,000 ,000 

4         I 

I 

2 

S 

2 

2 

2        8 

1,000,000  and  over 

I 

2 

Size  of  City 

Plan 

Manual 
Training 

Domestic 
Science 

Sewing 

A.       B.        C. 

A.       B.        C. 

A.       B.      C. 

8-  10,000 

10—  15,000 

15—  20  ,000 

20-  30  ,000 

30,    50,000 

50-100,000 

100-200,000 

200—1 ,000 ,000 

1,000,000  and  over 

I                    8 
6 

3 
I          I          4 

I          3          3 
2        12 

I           4 

I                      5 

I           I 

4 
4 
2 

3 
4          4 

4 
I           2 

4 
I 

I 

1  I 

3 

2  4 
I                   I 
I          I 

(2) 


Combining  Irrespective  of 
Size  of  Cities 


Plan 


Music 

Drawing 

Penmanship 

Physical  Education 
Manual  Training .  . 
Domestic  Science.  . 
Sewing 


A. 


14 


61 

68 
14 

20 
8 

5 
4 


Total 


83 
86 
18 
24 
58 
33 
16 


(3).     Percentage  of  Cities 
Following  Plan  C 


Music 

Drawing 

Penmanship 

Physical  Education 
Manual  Training .  . 
Domestic  Science.  . 
Sewing 


Per  cent 


9.6 
II  .6 
1 1  . 1 1 

8.3 
79-3 
84.8 
62.5 


Discussion 

The  meaning  of  this  table  becomes  clear  when  read  as  fol- 
lows: In  cities  of  8,000  to  10,000  population,  eight  specialists 
in  music  used  plan  B,  which  reads  "  new  material  taught  by 
yourself  at  regular  intervals  followed  by  a  drill  on  the  same 


no  Social  Factors  Affecting  Special  Supervision 

by  the  regular  teacher."  In  two  cities  of  this  size  plan  C 
was  followed:  "  special  subject  entirely  taught  under  your  charge 
and  all  lessons  given  by  yourself  or  assistants."  A  study  of 
this  table  reveals  the  fact  that  more  cities  report  the  use  of 
plan  A,  "  special  subject  taught  entirely  by  the  regular  teacher  " 
in  the  case  of  music  than  in  any  other  subject.  It  is  significant 
that  out  of  fifty  cities  with  a  population  of  less  than  30,000  only 
three  report  the  use  of  this  plan  while  in  eleven  of  the  thirty- 
three  cities  with  a  population  above  30,000,  plan  A  most  nearly 
describes  the  division  of  responsibility.  These  figures  indicate 
the  degree  of  fusion  which  has  taken  place  in  regard  to  music 
and  reveals  the  fact  that  the  larger  cities,  which  were  the  first 
to  introduce  the  subject,  were  likewise  the  first  to  consider  the 
teaching  of  music  a  regular  duty  of  the  regular  teacher.  This 
conclusion  is  also  confirmed  by  the  fact  that  the  majority  of 
cities  which  reported  the  use  of  plan  C  were  small  cities.  The 
same  general  situation  exists  in  the  case  of  drawing.  Out  of 
sixty-four  cities  with  a  population  of  less  than  50,000  only  three 
follow  plan  A,  while  in  the  twenty-two  cities  with  a  population 
of  50,000  or  over,  five  report  the  use  of  this  plan.  As  in  the 
case  of  music  the  majority  of  the  cities  using  plan  C  have  a 
small  population. 

Reference  to  section  three  of  the  foregoing  table  shows  in 
another  way  the  small  proportion  of  the  specialists  in  music 
and  drawing  who  are  assuming  the  entire  responsibility  for 
this  instruction.  Only  nine  and  six-tenths  per  cent  of  the  music 
and  eleven  and  six-tenths  per  cent  of  the  drawing  specialists 
report  the  use  of  this  plan — C.  While  these  figures  are  not  con- 
clusive they  certainly  point  to  the  question  in  regard  to  future 
development.  Will  the  plan  of  administration  which  has  been 
developed  in  the  larger  cities  work  down  into  the  smaller  cities 
as  well  as  the  addition  to  the  curriculum?  Do  not  these  figures 
indicate  that  ultimately  the  regular  teacher  will  bear  the  re- 
sponsibility for  instruction  in  music  and  drawing  as  well  as  the 
so-called  regular  subjects? 

The  close  relation  of  writing  to  the  daily  work  of  the  school 
has  forced  the  regular  teacher  to  assume  this  as  one  of  her 
own  burdens.  This  is  evidenced  by  the  fact  that  there  are  so 
few  specialists  in  penmanship  employed.     The  eighteen  replies 


Division  of  Responsibility  1 1 1 

received  indicate  that  plan  B  prevails  in  this  subject.     Plan  B 
is  also  predominant  in  the  case  of  physical  education. 

In  manual  training,  domestic  science  and  sewing  we  find  a 
decided  contrast  in  method.  Here  plan  C  is  the  typical  one 
employed.  Section  3  of  the  table,  which  shows  the  percentage 
of  cities  following  plan  C  brings  out  this  fact  even  in  more 
striking  contrast  than  does  the  simple  distribution.  The  per- 
centage in  the  case  of  music,  drawing,  penmanship,  and  physical 
education,  ranges  from  eight  and  three-tenths  to  eleven  and  six- 
tenths  per  cent,  while  for  manual  training,  domestic  science,  and 
sewing,  the  comparative  range  is  from  sixty-two  and  five-tenths 
to  eighty-four  and  eight-tenths  per  cent.  This  clearly  points  to 
the  isolation  of  these  subjects  so  far  as  the  regular  teacher  is 
concerned. 

Summary 

Summarizing,  the  prevailing  mode  for  music,  drawing,  pen- 
manship, and  physical  education  is  a  varying  plan  of  joint  re- 
sponsibility. In  respect  to  music  and  drawing  there  is  a  clear 
tendency  toward  the  special  subject  being  entirely  taught  by 
the  regular  teacher.  For  manual  training,  domestic  science,  and 
sewing,  the  mode  is  clearly  that  of  plan  C  in  which  the  regular 
teacher  has  no  share  of  responsibility. 


CHAPTER  XII 
SUMMARY  AND  CONCLUSION 

Sanctions 

Reference  to  the  introduction  to  this  book  reveals  the  fact 
that  this  study  was  undertaken  with  the  view  of  securing  infor- 
mation on  a  set  of  definite  topics,  the  first  of  which  related 
to  the  sanctions  back  of  the  introduction  of  the  subjects  under 
consideration.  It  is  inevitable  that  in  any  widespread  move- 
ment different  people  advocate  the  same  thing  for  different  pur- 
poses, so  that  any  single  statement  of  sanctions  must  be  con- 
sidered as  typical  rather  than  inclusive.  The  evidence  pre- 
sented in  the  early  chapters  indicates  that  the  following  were 
the  typical  sanctions  for  the  various  subjects.  The  religious  and 
social  sanction  was  operative  in  the  case  of  music.  The  need 
for  an  artisan  trained  in  industrial  art  in  order  to  improve 
the  finished  product  of  the  manufactures  furnished  the  sanction 
for  drawing.  Manual  training  came  as  a  result  of  about  the 
same  type  of  agitation  and  as  far  as  the  general  public  was 
concerned,  it  had  an  industrial  sanction.  However,  the  belief 
in  "  creative  activity  "  furnished  an  additional  educational  sanc- 
tion wholly  apart  from  the  one  mentioned  above.  Domestic 
science  came  into  the  schools  with  a  statement  of  practical  neces- 
sity of  teaching  the  girls  how  to  work.  This  was  interpreted 
from  both  the  economic  and  social  standpoint.  The  "  creative 
activity  "  idea  was  operative  to  a  limited  degree  as  a  justifica- 
tion of  the  work  considered  as  manual  training  for  girls.  Con- 
cern for  bodily  welfare  was  the  sanction  for  the  widespread  in- 
troduction of  physical  education,  while  penmanship  took  its  place 
as  a  fundamental  part  of  the  curriculum  under  the  commercial 
sanction. 

Origin  of  Demand 

The  second  topic  in  the  introduction  was  "  to  ascertain  if 
possible  whether  the  demand  for  these  subjects  came  from  within; 

112 


Summary  and  Conclusion  113 

the  school  itself,  or  whether  it  came  from  the  social  group  out- 
side." We  have  seen  that  the  pressure  which  brought  about 
the  introduction  of  music  was  generated  by  the  organization 
of  public  sentiment  by  people  outside  the  school.  The  rapid 
introduction  of  drawing  was  traced  to  the  influence  of  the  public 
opinion  directed  by  the  manufacturers  of  Massachusetts  and  else- 
where. Economic  and  humanitarian  forces  united  in  consciously 
creating  a  pressure  which  resulted  in  the  introduction  of  manual 
training  and  domestic  science.  The  sudden  rise  in  interest  in 
physical  education  in  the  early  nineties  was  traced  to  the  organ- 
ized activities  of  the  German  Turners,  the  Christian  Association 
and  private  munificence.  While  penmanship  had  a  special  value 
within  the  schoolroom,  it  did  not  take  its  place  as  a  sine  qua 
nan  until  pressure  was  brought  to  bear  from  outside  agitation. 
All  of  this  is  a  striking  commentary  on  the  character  of  the 
school  as  a  public  institution  and  on  its  responsiveness  to  public 
opinion  and  certainly  points  clearly  to  the  conclusion  that  these 
modifications  in  the  curriculum  have  largely  come  from  without 
rather  than  from  within  the  school  group.  The  administrator 
who  aspires  to  genuine  leadership  in  school  affairs  surely  can- 
not afford  to  neglect  the  conscious  organization  of  public  senti- 
ment as  one  of  his  most  powerful  means  of  attainment  of  ends. 
The  school  is  being  constantly  subjected  to  outside  pressure 
and  the  superintendent  must  either  yield  to  these  forces  or 
direct  them.  It  is  true  that  the  factor  of  imitation  has  been 
operative  in  the  later  introduction  so  that  in  many  cases  the 
desire  to  be  "  abreast  of  the  times  "  has  brought  about  the  intro- 
duction of  new  subject  matter  irrespective  of  the  fact  that  there 
was  neither  a  public  demand  for  this  nor  a  clear  conception  of 
the  purpose  involved.  However,  since  this  refers  to  the  later 
development,  it  does  not  affect  the  conclusions  above. 

Typical  Ways  in  Which  the  New  Subject  Matter  Becomes  Part 
of  the  Curriculum 

Another  topic  was :  "  To  point  out  certain  typical  ways  in 
which  new  subject  matter  comes  into  the  curriculum."  W^e 
have  seen  the  organized  efforts  of  the  Boston  Academy  of 
Music ;  the  petition  of  the  Massachusetts  manufacturers,  urging 
legislation  relative  to  drawing,  the  New  York  Industrial  Educa- 


114  Social  Factors  Affecting  Special  Supervision 

tion  Association  spreading  the  propaganda  for  manual  training 
and  domestic  science ;  the  German  Turners  and  others  putting 
forth  the  claims  for  physical  education.  We  have  likewise  noted 
that  in  almost  every  instance  the  expense  of  the  initial  experiment 
was  borne  by  these  organizations.  After  a  further  preparation  of 
the  public  mind  and  proving  the  possibility  of  the  venture,  the 
second  step  was  to  effect  joint  control  between  the  advocates 
of  the  new  movement  and  the  regular  school  authorities,  fol- 
lowed by  the  complete  adoption  at  public  expense.  In  view  of 
the  facts  presented  in  this  study  it  v/ould  seem  quite  possible 
to  introduce  almost  anything  into  the  schools  provided  a  few 
influential  people  became  sufficiently  interested  to  furnish  the 
necessary  funds  for  the  development  of  public  sentiment.  This 
plan  has  met  with  uniform  success  in  the  past  irrespective  of 
the  subject  involved  or  the  size  of  the  city. 

Refraction  within  the  Schoolroom 

The  fourth  problem  was  "  to  determine  the  effect  of  the  tradi- 
tions of  the  school  on  the  interpretation  of  the  subject  matter." 
We  have  seen  the  attempt  to  interpret  music  on  the  basis  of  its 
training  for  the  general  "  intellectual  faculty  "  to  the  detriment 
of  the  real  spirit  of  song.  Drawing  was  in  like  manner  sub- 
jected to  a  modification  and  the  industrial  phase  was  supplanted 
by  emphasis  on  the  intellectual  and  aesthetic  values.  The  man- 
ual training  was  interpreted  on  the  basis  of  an  educational  value 
quite  at  variance  with  the  industrial  purpose  of  the  outside 
forces  that  were  so  aggressive  in  its  behalf.  Domestic  science 
came  in  for  a  limited  share  of  this  "  educational  "  interpretation 
though  the  practical  value  were  so  imminent  that  there  was  less 
of  it  than  in  the  case  of  manual  training.  Physical  education 
was  to  a  large  degree  interpreted  as  "  training  for  the  will." 
The  implication  in  instruction  in  penmanship  has  been  so  clear 
that  there  has  been  little  refraction  within  the  schoolroom.  All 
in  all  we  are  forced  to  the  conclusion  that  even  though  the 
public  may  create  a  pressure  sufficiently  strong  to  place  a  new 
subject  within  the  curriculum,  there  is  no  guarantee  that  this 
subject  will  be  interpreted  in  accordance  with  the  popular  de- 
mand. The  traditions  of  the  school  are  so  powerful  that  the 
response  to  the  outside  pressures  is  made  in  conformity  with 


Summary  and  Conclusion  115 

existing  standards.  If  the  new  demand  represents  a  wide  vari- 
ance from  the  existing  standard  the  refraction  is  correspondingly 
wide.  The  school  has  been  identified  with  purely  intellectual 
activity  for  so  long  a  time  that  any  demand  outside  of  this  field 
is  extremely  liable  to  be  misinterpreted. 

Spread  of  the  Practice 

Another  topic  for  investigation  was :  "  to  determine  certain 
quantitative  aspects  of  the  problem  including  the  distribution 
of  specialists  for  subject,  location,  salary,  sex  and  division  of 
responsibility."  Relative  to  distribution  for  subject,  it  was  found 
that  in  cities  of  the  United  States  with  8,000  or  more  inhabi- 
tants in  1908,  eighty-five  per  cent  reported  the  employment  of 
specialists  for  music ;  seventy-six  per  cent  for  drawing ;  twenty- 
one  per  cent  for  penmanship;  forty-three  per  cent  for  manual 
training ;  nineteen  per  cent  for  sewing ;  thirty  per  cent  for  domes- 
tic science;  and  twenty  per  cent  for  physical  education.  Com- 
pared with  earlier  reports  these  figures  indicate  that  there  has 
been  a  remarkable  growth  in  the  practice  in  connection  with 
music,  drawing  and  manual  training  in  recent  years.  During 
about  the  same  period  penmanship  and  physical  education  barely 
held  their  own  as  subjects  for  "  special  "  treatment. 

The  practice  of  employing  specialists  spread  much  more 
quickly  in  the  north  than  in  the  south,  and  in  the  larger  city 
than  in  the  smaller  city.  The  later  tables  show  the  growth  in 
the  other  sections  of  the  country  and  in  the  smaller  cities.  On 
the  whole  this  adjustment  has  come  first  where  the  demand  was 
the  greatest.  The  public  schools  in  the  North  have  occupied 
until  recently  a  much  larger  field  of  social  responsibility  than 
have  the  public  schools  of  the  South. 

The  very  sanctions  back  of  the  introduction  of  several  of 
these  subjects  were  interwoven  with  the  problems  arising  in 
connection  with  life  in  the  large  cities,  so  it  is  not  surprising 
to  find  that  the  practice  of  employing  specialists  spread  from 
the  large  city  to  the  small  city. 

Salaries 

The  study  has  brought  out  the  fact  that  the  median  salary 
paid  to  men  in  each  subject  was  considerably  in  excess  of  that 


ii6  Social  Factors  Affecting  Special  Supervision 

paid  to  women ;  for  example,  the  median  annual  salary  for  men 
and  women  in  music  was  $1,009.37  ^^^^  $74838  respectively;  for 
drawing,  $1,116.66  for  men  and  $807.50  for  women;  for  pen- 
manship, $1,104.16  for  men,  $766.66  for  women;  for  manual 
training,  $1,138.63  for  men,  and  $795.88  for  women;  for  physi- 
cal education,  $1,141.66  for  men,  and  $803.33  ^^^  women.  The 
w'hole  distribution  indicated  that  the  difference  in  salary  was 
determined  by  sex  rather  than  by  subject.  Music  specialists 
received  the  lowest  salaries  both  for  men  and  for  women  with 
the  exception  of  sewing,  which  was  slightly  lower  than  music,  but 
there  were  comparatively  few  specialists  in  sewing  employed. 
There  was  no  striking  difference  in  the  salaries  paid  in  the 
various  parts  of  the  United  States. 

Sex 

The  distribution  for  sex  revealed  the  fact  that  women  have 
been  largely  selected  for  certain  subjects,  while  men  predominate 
in  others :  for  example,  eighty-five  per  cent  of  the  drawing 
specialists  were  women  while  only  sixty-three  per  cent  of  the 
music  specialists  were  women.  Penmanship  selected  a  surpris- 
ingly large  percentage  of  men,  while  one-fifth  of  the  specialists 
in  manual  training  were  women.  Thus  there  was  a  larger  pro- 
portion of  female  specialists  in  manual  training  than  male 
specialists  in  drawing.  The  largest  percentage  of  male  music 
specialists  was  found  in  the  North  Atlantic  States. 

Division  of  Responsibility 

The  inquiry  in  regard  to  the  relative  responsibility  borne  by 
the  regular  teacher  and  the  specialist  in  connection  with  the 
subjects  considered,  brought  out  rather  clearly  the  typical  meth- 
ods for  each.  The  typical  method  in  music,  drawing,  penman- 
ship and  physical  education  is  "  new  material  taught  by  special- 
ists at  regular  intervals  followed  by  drill  on  the  same  by  the 
regular  teacher."  In  the  larger  cities  there  is  a  clear  tendency 
to  shift  this  responsibility  in  the  cases  of  music  and  drawing  so 
that  these  special  subjects  are  taught  entirely  by  the  regular 
teacher.  The  typical  method  in  manual  training,  domestic  science 
and  sewing  is  "  special  subjects  entirely  under  the  charge  of 


Summary  and  Conclusion  ny 

specialists  and  all  lessons  given  by  specialist."  The  slight  tend- 
ency away  from  this  method  toward  one  in  which  the  regular 
teacher  has  a  share  of  responsibility  is  confined  almost  wholly 
to  the  large  cities. 


APPENDIX  I 

INFORMATION  CARD 

Teachers  College,  New  York,  N.  Y. 

December  ist,  1910. 
Dear  Superintendent  : 

I  am  making  a  study  of  the  salaries,  sexes,  and  the  increase  in  the 
number  of  Supervisors  of  Special  Subjects  since  1875.  My  material, 
which  has  been  gathered  from  government  reports  and  various  directories, 
includes  almost  500  cities.  In  checking  up,  I  find  that  the  data  from  your 
city,  however,  are  not  in  satisfactory  form.  Will  you  kindly  furnish  me 
the  facts  for  1908  on  the  attached  card? 

Very  truly, 


(Return  Card) 

City State 

Report    for    1908    (cross    out    subjects    not   especially    supervised). 
Supervisor  of  Music Sex Annual  Salary  $ .  .  .  . 


Drawing 

Penmanship 

Physical  Culture 

Manual  Training 

Domestic  Science 

Sewing 

Answered  by Date. 


118 


APPENDIX  II 


TABULATION  SHEET 


This  illustrates  the  method  used  in  the  tabulation  of  the  data 
for  the  quantitative  treatment  in  chapters. 


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APPENDIX  III 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Music 
American  Music.    One  volume  in  series  of  American  History  and  History 

and  Encyclopedia  of  Music.    Irving  Squire.    Toledo,  1908. 
Boston.     Report  of  the  School  Committee.     1874. 

Clark,  Hannah  B.     Public  Schools  of  Chicago.     Thesis  for  the  doctor- 
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Dexter,  Edwin   G.     History  of   Education  in  the  United   States.     New 

York:     Macmillan   Company,    1906. 
Eaton,  John.    The  Study  of  Music  in  the  Public  Schools.    U.  S.  Bureau 

of  Education,  Bulletin  No.  i,  1886. 
Elson,  Charles  Lewis.     National  Music  of  America  and  Its   Sources. 

Boston:    L.  C.  Page  and  Co.,  1900. 
Hood,  G.     History  of  Music  in  New  England.     1846. 
Kandel,  I.  L.    Training  of  Elementary  Teachers  in  Germany.     Teachers 

College  Contribution  to  Education,  No.  31,  1910. 
Manchester,  Arthur  L.    Music  Education  in  the  United  States.    U.  S. 

Bureau  of  Education,  Bulletin  No.  4,  1908. 
Payne,  Bruce  R.    Elementary  School  Curriculum.     Boston :  Silver,  Bur- 

dett  &  Co.,  1905. 
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Drawing 
AuGSBURY,  D.  R.    Drawing  in  General  Education.    Education,  vol.  XVII, 

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Barnard.  American  Journal  of  Education,  vol.  II,  III,  VI,  VIII,  X, 
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Barr,  Ferree.     Art  for  the  Schoolroom.    Education,  vol.  XVII,  I. 

Boston.     Report  of  School  Committee,  1852,  56,  58,  69,  70,  71,  72,  73,  74. 

Clark,  Isaac  Edwards.  Art  and  Industrial  Education.  In  Butler,  Edu- 
cation in  the  U.  S.     II,  705-67. 

.     Drawing  in  the  Public   Schools.    U.   S.   Bureau  of   Education. 

1885. 

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Connecticut.    Common  School  Journal,  vol.  I,  1838. 
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120 


Bibliography  121 

CuBBERLEY,  E.  C.  Somc  Changing  Conceptions  of  Education.  Boston : 
Houghton  Mifflin  and  Co.,  1908. 

Drawing.  Compilation  of  Articles  on  Subject  published  as  a  Massachu- 
setts public  document.     Boston,  1891. 

Drawing,  In  Public  Schools.  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education,  Circular  of 
Information,  No.  2,  1874. 

Eastern  Art  Teachers'  Association.     1903. 

Franklin,  Benjamin.  Proposals  Relating  to  Education,  in  Smith,  Life 
and  Writings  of  Benjamin  Franklin.  II,  386-96.  New  York:  Mac- 
millan  Company,  1905. 

Horace  Mann.     Life  and  Works.     III.     Boston:  Lee  and  Shepard,  1891. 

Massachusetts.     Reports  of  Board  of  Education,  i860  to  1680. 

New  Haven.     Report  of  Public  Schools,  1874-75. 

Proceedings  of  National  Education  Association. 

Schneider,  H.  G.  Drawing  in  New  York  Public  Schools.  Education, 
vol.  XVII,  204. 

United  States,  Reports  of  Commissioner  of  Education. 

Manual  Training 

Barrows,   Isabel.     Conference   on  Manual  Training.     Boston,   1891. 
Boston.     Report  of  School  Committee,  1882,  1883,  1884. 
Brown,  Elmer  E.     Making  of  Our  Middle  Schools.     New  York :  Long- 
mans, Green  &  Co.,  1902. 
Carlton,  Frank  Tracy.     Economic  Influences  on  Education.    New  York : 

York :    Macmillan  Company,  1908. 
Circular  of  Information.     No.  2,  1889.    U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education. 
Clark,    Isaac   Edwards.    Art   and   Industry.     Part   I,    II,    III,   and   IV. 

1885-1889.     U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education. 
Council  of  Supervisors  of  Manual  Arts.    Yearbook,  1906. 
Dexter,  Edwin  G.     History  of  Education  in  United  States.     New  York : 

Macmillan  Company,  1906. 
Eastern  Art  Teachers'  Association,  1903. 
Froebel.     Educational  Laws. 

Ham,  Chas.  H.     Manual  Training.     New  York:    Harper  &  Bro.,  1886. 
McArthur,    Arthur.      Education    in   its    Relation   to   Manual    Industry. 

New  York:  Appieton  &  Co.,  1884. 
Princeton  Review,  1883. 

Proceedings  of  Eastern  Manual  Arts  Association,  1905-6. 
Procedings  of  National  Education  Association. 
Proceedings  of  International  Congress  of  Education,  1903. 
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Pennsylvania. 
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Woodward,   C   M.     The  Manual   Training  School.     New  York:    Chas. 

Scribners'  Sons,  1896. 


122  Social  Factors  Affecting  Special  Supervision 

Domestic  Science 

Barnard.     American  Journal  of  Education,  1869. 

Boston.     Report  of  School  Committee,  1869-1870. 

Carlton,  Frank  Tracy.     Economic  Influences  on  Education.     New  York : 

Macmillan  Company,  1908. 
Clark,   Isaac  Edwards.     Art  and   Industry.     Part   I,   1885,   1400  pages. 

U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education. 
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Education. 
Dean.    Worker  and  the  State.    New  York :  Century  Co.,  1910. 
English  Board  of  Education,  Special  Report.     London,  1905. 
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Philadelphia. 
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of  Education. 
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sylvania, Harrisburg,  1889. 
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United  States  Commissioner  of  Education.     U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education, 

1887. 

Physical  Education 

Alcott,  W.  a.     American  Institute  of  Instruction,  1830. 

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BoYKiN,  J.  C.  Physical  Training,  Report  Commissioner  of  Education. 
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Hartwell,  E.  M.  Report,  Director  Physical  Training,  Boston  School 
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' .     Physical    Training    in    American    Colleges.      U.    S.    Bureau    of 

Education,  Circular  of  Information,   No.  5,   1885. 

.  Proc.  American  Association  for  Advancement  of  Physical  Edu- 
cation, 1892. 

Hinsdale,  B.  A.  Commissioners  of  Education,  Report,  U.  S.  Bureau  of 
Education. 

McCuRDY,  J.  H.  Physical  Training  in  Public  Schools.  American  Physi- 
cal Education  Review,  X. 

Proceedings,  International  Congress  of  Education,  Chicago,  1903. 

Proceedings,  National  Educational  Association,  1891  to  present  date. 

Shotweix.     Schools  of  Cincinnati,  Cincinnati. 


Bibliography  123 

Penmanship 
Barnard.    American  Journal  of  Education,  vols.  II,  IV,  V,  XXVIII. 
Brown,  Elmer  E.    Making  of  our  Middle  Schools.     New  York:  Long- 
mans, Green  &  Co.,  1906. 
Ellsworth,  H.  W.     Essentials  of  Penmanship.     New  York,  1878. 
Horace  Mann.     Annual  Reports,  III,  IV,  VI,  VII,  Boston. 
Shotwell.     Schools  of  Cincinnati,  Cincinnati. 


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